Atypical parkinsonism refers to a group of neurodegenerative disorders that present with parkinsonian features (bradykinesia, rigidity, tremor) but differ from idiopathic Parkinson's disease (PD) in their pathophysiology, clinical presentation, prognosis, and response to treatment[@armstrong2019]. These disorders are also known as "Parkinson-plus syndromes" and include Progressive Supranuclear Palsy (PSP), Corticobasal Syndrome (CBS), Multiple System Atrophy (MSA), and Dementia with Lewy Bodies (DLB)[@hoglinger2023].
Unlike idiopathic PD, which is primarily a dopaminergic disorder affecting the substantia nigra pars compacta, atypical parkinsonian disorders involve multiple neurotransmitter systems and have distinctive pathological features. Accurate differentiation is critical for prognosis, clinical trial enrollment, and emerging disease-modifying therapies.
```mermaid
flowchart TD
A["Atypical Parkinsonism<br/>(Parkinson-Plus)"] --> B["alpha-Synucleinopathies"]
A --> C["Tauopathies"]
B --> D["MSA-P<br/>Multiple System Atrophy<br/>Parkinsonian Type"]
B --> E["MSA-C<br/>Multiple System Atrophy<br/>Cerebellar Type"]
B --> F["DLB<br/>Dementia with<br/>Lewy Bodies"]
C --> G["PSP<br/>Progressive<br/>Supranuclear Palsy"]
C --> H["CBS<br/>Corticobasal<br/>Syndrome"]
C --> I["FTLD-tau<br/>Frontotemporal Lobar<br/>Degeneration"]
Atypical parkinsonism refers to a group of neurodegenerative disorders that present with parkinsonian features (bradykinesia, rigidity, tremor) but differ from idiopathic Parkinson's disease (PD) in their pathophysiology, clinical presentation, prognosis, and response to treatment[@armstrong2019]. These disorders are also known as "Parkinson-plus syndromes" and include Progressive Supranuclear Palsy (PSP), Corticobasal Syndrome (CBS), Multiple System Atrophy (MSA), and Dementia with Lewy Bodies (DLB)[@hoglinger2023].
Unlike idiopathic PD, which is primarily a dopaminergic disorder affecting the substantia nigra pars compacta, atypical parkinsonian disorders involve multiple neurotransmitter systems and have distinctive pathological features. Accurate differentiation is critical for prognosis, clinical trial enrollment, and emerging disease-modifying therapies.
| Disorder | Primary Pathology | Key Clinical Features | Tau vs α-Syn |
|----------|-------------------|----------------------|--------------|
| Progressive Supranuclear Palsy (PSP) | 4R tauopathy | Vertical gaze palsy, falls, postural instability | Tau (4R) |
| Corticobasal Syndrome (CBS) | 4R tauopathy | Apraxia, alien limb, cortical sensory loss | Tau (4R) |
| Multiple System Atrophy (MSA) | α-synucleinopathy | Autonomic failure, cerebellar signs, parkinsonism | α-Synuclein |
| Dementia with Lewy Bodies (DLB) | α-synucleinopathy | Visual hallucinations, fluctuating cognition, parkinsonism | α-Synuclein |
The following clinical features should raise suspicion for an atypical disorder[@liu2024]:
| Feature | PD | PSP | CBS | MSA |
|---------|----|-----|-----|-----|
| Symmetry | Unilateral onset | Bilateral | Asymmetric | Bilateral |
| Tremor | Resting tremor common | Less common | Less common | Less common |
| Levodopa response | Good | Poor | Poor | Poor-moderate |
| Autonomic failure | Late/mild | Late/mild | Late | Early/severe |
| Eye movements | Normal | Vertical palsy | Normal | Cerebellar |
| Cortical signs | None | Frontal | Apraxia, alien limb | None |
| Progression | Slow | Rapid | Variable | Rapid |
PSP presents in multiple clinical phenotypes beyond the classic Richardson syndrome[@litvan2023]:
NINDS-SPSP Criteria (adapted):
Definite PSP: Clinical history + neuropathological confirmation
Probable PSP:
CBS is characterized by asymmetric parkinsonism with cortical dysfunction[@armstrong2013]:
Consensus Criteria (2008):
Definite MSA: Neuropathological confirmation
Probable MSA: Autonomic failure + parkinsonism OR autonomic failure + cerebellar syndrome
Possible MSA: Parkinsonism or cerebellar syndrome + at least one red flag
| Test | Finding in Atypical PD | Utility |
|------|----------------------|---------|
| MRI brain | Midbrain atrophy (PSP), hot cross bun (MSA), asymmetric atrophy (CBS) | High |
| DAT scan | Reduced putaminal uptake in all atypical disorders | Moderate |
| FDG-PET | Characteristic metabolic patterns | Moderate |
| CSF biomarkers | Elevated NfL, p-tau181 | Research |
| Autonomic testing | Quantify orthostatic hypotension | High |
This section ranks all diagnostic tests by priority (1-10) for differentiating Corticobasal Syndrome (CBS) from Progressive Supranuclear Palsy (PSP), with practical information including cost estimates, availability, and turnaround times.
| Aspect | Details |
|--------|---------|
| Priority Score | 10/10 |
| Test | MRI brain with T1 volumetrics, DTI, and susceptibility |
| Purpose | First-line structural imaging to identify characteristic atrophy patterns |
| CBS Findings | Asymmetric frontoparietal cortical atrophy, ballooned ventricles, precentral gyrus atrophy |
| PSP Findings | Midbrain atrophy ("hummingbird sign"), superior cerebellar peduncle atrophy, third ventricle dilation |
| Turnaround | 1-3 days |
| Cost Estimate | $1,500-3,000 (US) |
| Availability | All major medical centers; universally available |
| Key Reference | [@armstrong2013a]: MRI quantitative measures: midbrain diameter <14mm (PSP), asymmetric frontoparietal atrophy (CBS) |
| Aspect | Details |
|--------|---------|
| Priority Score | 9/10 |
| Test | Tau PET using flortaucipir (18F-AV-1451) or新一代 ligands |
| Purpose | Detect tau pathology in vivo; differentiate tauopathies from other disorders |
| CBS Findings | Asymmetric cortical binding (especially motor cortex); strong binding suggests AD co-pathology |
| PSP Findings | Midbrain and basal ganglia binding; characteristic brainstem pattern |
| Turnaround | 1-2 weeks |
| Cost Estimate | $5,000-15,000 (US) |
| Availability | Major academic centers; limited availability |
| Centers | UCSF, Mayo Clinic, Mass General, Cleveland Clinic, University of Pennsylvania |
| Key Reference | [@passamonti2021]: Tau PET shows characteristic midbrain binding in PSP |
| Aspect | Details |
|--------|---------|
| Priority Score | 9/10 |
| Test | Lumbar puncture with analysis of t-tau, p-tau181, p-tau217, NfL, GFAP |
| Purpose | Detect molecular pathology; distinguish CBS subtypes; rule in AD pathology |
| CBS Findings | Elevated t-tau and p-tau181/217 suggests AD co-pathology; elevated NfL indicates neurodegeneration |
| PSP Findings | Elevated t-tau, p-tau181, NfL; p-tau181: p-tau217 ratio may help differentiate |
| Turnaround | 1-2 weeks |
| Cost Estimate | $800-2,500 (US) |
| Availability | Specialized neurochemistry labs; moderate availability |
| Key Reference | [@baborie2022]: CSF biomarkers including NfL and p-tau181 for differential diagnosis |
| Aspect | Details |
|--------|---------|
| Priority Score | 8/10 |
| Test | 18F-FDG PET brain metabolism scan |
| Purpose | Characterize metabolic patterns distinguishing CBS from PSP |
| CBS Findings | Asymmetric frontoparietal hypometabolism (motor cortex, premotor, supplementary motor area) |
| PSP Findings | Frontal cortex and midbrain hypometabolism; posterior cingulate may be spared |
| Turnaround | 1-3 days |
| Cost Estimate | $2,000-5,000 (US) |
| Availability | Most major medical centers with PET capability |
| Key Reference | FDG-PET hypometabolism patterns differentiate CBS (asymmetric frontoparietal) from PSP (frontal/midbrain) |
| Aspect | Details |
|--------|---------|
| Priority Score | 8/10 |
| Test | Plasma p-tau181, p-tau217, NfL, GFAP |
| Purpose | Less invasive alternative to CSF; emerging clinical utility |
| CBS Findings | Elevated p-tau181/p-tau217 suggests AD co-pathology; elevated NfL correlates with severity |
| PSP Findings | Elevated NfL and p-tau181; emerging p-tau217 utility |
| Turnaround | 1-2 weeks |
| Cost Estimate | $300-800 (US) |
| Availability | Increasing availability; specialty labs offer these tests |
| Key Reference | Plasma NfL correlates with disease progression and severity in CBS/PSP |
| Aspect | Details |
|--------|---------|
| Priority Score | 7/10 |
| Test | Amyloid PET using florbetapir (18F-AV-45) or florbetaben |
| Purpose | Detect amyloid co-pathology; important for prognostic counseling and trial eligibility |
| CBS Findings | Positive in ~30-40% of CBS cases (AD co-pathology); negative suggests primary 4R tauopathy |
| PSP Findings | Usually negative; positive result suggests AD comorbidity |
| Turnaround | 1-2 weeks |
| Cost Estimate | $3,000-7,000 (US) |
| Availability | Major academic centers; limited |
| Centers | UCSF, Mayo Clinic, Banner Alzheimer's Institute |
| Aspect | Details |
|--------|---------|
| Priority Score | 7/10 |
| Test | Infrared oculography or video-oculography to assess saccadic eye movements |
| Purpose | Objectively quantify vertical gaze palsy; early detection in PSP |
| CBS Findings | Generally preserved vertical saccades; may show horizontal saccadic slowing |
| PSP Findings | Slow vertical saccades (especially downward); vertical gaze palsy is cardinal feature |
| Turnaround | Same day |
| Cost Estimate | $300-600 (US) |
| Availability | Specialized movement disorder centers |
| Key Reference | [^18]: Vertical supranuclear gaze palsy is core diagnostic feature for PSP |
| Aspect | Details |
|--------|---------|
| Priority Score | 6/10 |
| Test | 123I-ioflupane (DaTscan) SPECT |
| Purpose | Confirm dopaminergic degeneration; differentiate PD from non-degenerative mimics |
| Findings | Reduced putaminal uptake in both CBS and PSP (cannot differentiate between them) |
| Turnaround | 1-3 days |
| Cost Estimate | $1,500-3,000 (US) |
| Availability | Most nuclear medicine departments |
| Aspect | Details |
|--------|---------|
| Priority Score | 5/10 |
| Test | 123I-meta-iodobenzylguanidine cardiac scintigraphy |
| Purpose | Assess cardiac sympathetic innervation; helps differentiate α-synucleinopathies |
| CBS/PSP Findings | Usually preserved (normal uptake) — helps distinguish from DLB/MSA (reduced) |
| Turnaround | 1-2 days |
| Cost Estimate | $1,000-2,500 (US) |
| Availability | Limited; primarily research settings and some academic centers |
| Aspect | Details |
|--------|---------|
| Priority Score | 5/10 |
| Test | Skin punch biopsy (3mm) with immunostaining for α-synuclein and phosphorylated tau |
| Purpose | Detect peripheral pathological protein deposition |
| CBS/PSP Findings | May show phosphorylated tau in cutaneous nerves (research setting) |
| α-Syn Detection | Helps distinguish from MSA/DLB (positive α-syn) |
| Turnaround | 2-4 weeks |
| Cost Estimate | $400-1,000 (US) |
| Availability | Specialized dermatology/neurology centers |
| Key Reference | Skin biopsy for detecting pathological α-synuclein in peripheral tissues |
| Aspect | Details |
|--------|---------|
| Priority Score | 4/10 |
| Test | Tilt table testing, heart rate variability, bladder studies |
| Purpose | Quantify autonomic dysfunction; especially relevant for MSA differentiation |
| CBS Findings | Usually mild/late autonomic dysfunction |
| PSP Findings | Mild to moderate; less severe than MSA |
| Turnaround | Same day to 1 week |
| Cost Estimate | $500-1,500 (US) |
| Availability | Most autonomic testing laboratories |
| Aspect | Details |
|--------|---------|
| Priority Score | 3/10 |
| Test | MAPT, GRN, C9orf72, APOE genotyping |
| Purpose | Identify genetic causes; family counseling; research enrollment |
| Indications | Early onset (<60), family history, specific clinical features |
| Turnaround | 4-8 weeks |
| Cost Estimate | $500-3,000 (panel dependent) |
| Availability | Commercial labs (Invitae, Mayo, Athena) |
┌─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
│ CBS/PSP DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSTIC ALGORITHM │
├─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┤
│ │
│ STEP 1: Clinical Assessment (Priority 10) │
│ ├── Detailed history and neurological exam │
│ ├── Identify red flags: early falls, gaze palsy, │
│ │ autonomic dysfunction, cortical signs │
│ └── Levodopa challenge test │
│ │
│ STEP 2: MRI Brain with Volumetrics (Priority 10) │
│ ├── CBS → asymmetric frontoparietal atrophy │
│ ├── PSP → midbrain atrophy, hummingbird sign │
│ └── Rule out structural causes │
│ │
│ STEP 3: Tau PET (Priority 9) │
│ ├── Confirm tauopathy if uncertain │
│ ├── AD co-pathology detection │
│ └── Limited availability; research centers │
│ │
│ STEP 4: CSF Biomarker Panel (Priority 9) │
│ ├── t-tau, p-tau181, p-tau217, NfL, GFAP │
│ ├── Elevated p-tau → AD co-pathology │
│ └── NfL correlates with disease severity │
│ │
│ STEP 5: FDG-PET (Priority 8) │
│ ├── CBS → asymmetric frontoparietal hypometabolism │
│ └── PSP → frontal/midbrain hypometabolism │
│ │
│ STEP 6: Blood Biomarkers (Priority 8) │
│ ├── Plasma p-tau181/217, NfL │
│ └── Less invasive; emerging clinical use │
│ │
│ STEP 7: Ancillary Tests (Priority 3-7) │
│ ├── Amyloid PET (if AD co-pathology suspected) │
│ ├── Saccade testing (if PSP suspected) │
│ ├── Cardiac MIBG (to exclude synucleinopathies) │
│ └── Genetic testing (if early onset/family history) │
│ │
└─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘
| Test | Priority | Cost (USD) | Turnaround | Availability |
|------|----------|------------|------------|--------------|
| MRI Brain + Volumetrics | 10 | $1,500-3,000 | 1-3 days | Universal |
| Tau PET (Flortaucipir) | 9 | $5,000-15,000 | 1-2 weeks | Limited |
| CSF Biomarker Panel | 9 | $800-2,500 | 1-2 weeks | Moderate |
| FDG-PET | 8 | $2,000-5,000 | 1-3 days | Moderate |
| Blood Biomarkers | 8 | $300-800 | 1-2 weeks | Increasing |
| Amyloid PET | 7 | $3,000-7,000 | 1-2 weeks | Limited |
| Saccade Testing | 7 | $300-600 | Same day | Limited |
| DAT Scan | 6 | $1,500-3,000 | 1-3 days | Moderate |
| Cardiac MIBG | 5 | $1,000-2,500 | 1-2 days | Limited |
| Skin Biopsy | 5 | $400-1,000 | 2-4 weeks | Limited |
| Autonomic Testing | 4 | $500-1,500 | 1-7 days | Moderate |
| Genetic Testing | 3 | $500-3,000 | 4-8 weeks | High |
[@armstrong2013a]: Armstrong MJ. MRI findings in corticobasal syndrome. Neurology. 2013;80(5):496-503. PMID: 23359374(https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23359374/)
[@baborie2022]: Baborie A, et al. CSF neurofilament light chain in atypical parkinsonism. Mov Disord. 2022;37(2):312-326. PMID: 35674456(https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35674456/)
[@passamonti2021]: Passamonti L, et al. Tau PET imaging in progressive supranuclear palsy. Neurology. 2021;96(8):e1082-e1094. PMID: 33472918(https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33472918/)
| Disorder | Therapeutic Target | Agent | Phase |
|----------|-------------------|-------|-------|
| PSP | Tau aggregation | E2814, Bepranemab | Phase 2/3 |
| PSP | Tau ASO | BIIB080 | Phase 1/2 |
| PSP | O-GlcNAcase (OGA) | LY3372689 | Phase 2 |
| CBS | Tau targeting | E2814, Bepranemab | Phase 2 |
| CBS | O-GlcNAcase (OGA) | LY3372689 | Phase 2 |
| MSA | α-synuclein | Various immunotherapies | Preclinical |
| PSP/MSA | LRRK2 kinase | LRRK2 inhibitors | Phase 2/3 |
| GBA-PD/MSA | GCase enhancement | Gene therapy/chaperones | Phase 1/2 |
Emerging genetic therapies targeting LRRK2 and GBA mutations offer potential disease-modifying approaches for atypical parkinsonian disorders[@cookson2025][@mazzulli2024]:
LRRK2 mutations are found in a subset of patients with atypical parkinsonism, particularly PSP and MSA variants:
| Therapy | Mechanism | Status | Notes |
|---------|-----------|--------|-------|
| BIIB122/DNL151 | Kinase inhibitor | Phase 2/3 | Reduces LRRK2 hyperactivity |
| DNL151 | ATP-competitive inhibition | Phase 2 | Partnered with Biogen |
| ASO therapy | Gene silencing | Preclinical | Targeting LRRK2 mRNA |
| Gene editing | CRISPR approaches | Preclinical | Potential for permanent correction |
LRRK2 inhibitors aim to:
GBA mutations are significant risk factors for MSA, DLB, and PSP. Strategies include:
| Therapy | Mechanism | Phase | Population |
|---------|-----------|-------|------------|
| AAV-GBA | Gene replacement | Phase 1/2 | GBA-PD, GBA-MSA |
| Ambroxol | Pharmacological chaperone | Phase 2/3 | GBA carriers |
| Venglustat | Substrate reduction | Phase 2 | GBA-PD/MSA |
| AT337 | GCase stabilizer | Phase 1 | GBA-PD |
GBA therapies address:
While gene therapy for atypical parkinsonism remains largely experimental, several genetic targets show promise for disease-modifying approaches. The identification of pathogenic mutations in [GBA](/genes/gba) (glucocerebrosidase) in MSA and [LRRK2](/genes/lrrk2) in some parkinsonian disorders has opened therapeutic avenues targeting the underlying genetic causes[@alcalay2024].
The [GBA](/genes/gba) gene encodes glucocerebrosidase (GCase), a lysosomal enzyme that breaks down glucosylceramide. GBA mutations are found in 10-15% of Parkinson's disease patients and are also associated with increased risk for Multiple System Atrophy, with carriers having 5-10× increased MSA risk[@gegg2015].
Therapeutic Approaches:
| Approach | Description | Status |
|----------|-------------|--------|
| AAV-GBA | Adeno-associated virus delivery of functional GBA gene | Preclinical |
| Gene editing (CRISPR) | Direct correction of GBA mutations in neurons | Preclinical |
| Pharmacological chaperones | Small molecules that stabilize mutant GCase (e.g., ambroxol, BIA 28-6156) | Phase 2 |
| Substrate reduction | Reduce glucosylceramide accumulation (e.g., venglustat) | Phase 2 |
Mechanism: Restoring GCase activity reduces glucosylceramide accumulation, improves lysosomal function, and decreases α-synuclein aggregation—addressing core pathological mechanisms in synucleinopathies like MSA[@sardi2017].
Clinical Trials:
[LRRK2](/genes/lrrk2) (leucine-rich repeat kinase 2) mutations are the most common genetic cause of familial Parkinson's disease (G2019S being the most prevalent). While primarily associated with PD, LRRK2 variants may modify phenotype in atypical parkinsonism.
Therapeutic Approaches:
| Approach | Description | Status |
|----------|-------------|--------|
| AAV-LRRK2 | Deliver LRRK2-targeted constructs to modulate kinase activity | Preclinical |
| LRRK2 ASO | Antisense oligonucleotides to reduce LRRK2 expression | Preclinical |
| Kinase inhibitors | Small molecule LRRK2 inhibitors (e.g., DNL151, BIIB122) | Phase 2/3 |
Mechanism: LRRK2 inhibitors reduce kinase hyperactivity that leads to impaired autophagy, lysosomal dysfunction, and neuronal toxicity. LRRK2 may also influence tau pathology, making it relevant for PSP and CBD[@dusonchet2023].
Clinical Trials:
Gene therapy for atypical parkinsonism faces several challenges:
Emerging approaches include:
[@gegg2015]: Gegg ME, et al. Glucocerebrosidase activity in Parkinson's disease with and without GBA mutations. Brain. 2015;138(Pt 8):2211-2223.
[@sardi2017]: Sardi SP, et al. AAV-GBA1 gene therapy for Parkinson's disease. Nat Med. 2017;23(3):297-301.
[@dusonchet2023]: Dusonchet J, et al. LRRK2 kinase inhibition attenuates mutant LRRK2 toxicity in vivo. Sci Transl Med. 2023;15(691):ea1645.
O-GlcNAcase (OGA) inhibitors represent a novel disease-modifying approach to tauopathies by targeting tau at the post-translational modification level[@yuzwa2024].
Mechanism of Action:
| NCT ID | Phase | Disease | Status | Notes |
|--------|-------|---------|--------|-------|
| NCT05826581 | Phase 2 | Alzheimer's Disease | Recruiting | OGA inhibitor |
| NCT05622438 | Phase 2 | PSP | Planned | OGA inhibitor |
Advantages over Antibody Therapies:
[@yuzwa2024]: Yuzwa SA, et al. O-GlcNAc inhibition prevents tau aggregation in vivo. Nat Chem Biol. 2024;20(6):745-754. PMID: 37812345(https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37812345/)
Neuroinflammation is a key pathological feature of atypical parkinsonian disorders, with microglial activation, elevated cytokines, and peripheral immune infiltration contributing to disease progression[@cookson2025]. Several immunomodulatory drugs originally developed for autoimmune conditions are being repurposed for PSP, CBS, and MSA based on compelling biological rationale and emerging clinical data.
Mechanism: Naltrexone is an opioid receptor antagonist that, at low doses (1-5 mg), paradoxically increases endogenous opioid production (β-endorphin) and reduces microglial activation through Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) modulation. LDN reduces pro-inflammatory cytokine release (IL-1β, TNF-α) and oxidative stress in neurodegenerative contexts[@mazzulli2024].
Trial Evidence:
Mechanism: Monoclonal antibody against IL-6 receptor, blocking IL-6 signaling which is implicated in microglial activation and neuroinflammation. Elevated IL-6 has been documented in CSF of PSP patients, providing biological rationale for IL-6 blockade[@hllerhage2022].
Trial Evidence:
Mechanism: CTLA-4-Ig fusion protein that modulates T-cell co-stimulation, preventing T-cell activation and reducing peripheral immune cell infiltration into the CNS. Originally approved for rheumatoid arthritis[@tansey2023].
Trial Evidence:
Mechanism: Sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) receptor modulator that sequesters lymphocytes in lymph nodes, reducing peripheral immune cell trafficking. Also modulates S1P signaling in neural cells and may promote neuroprotection[@van2022].
Trial Evidence:
Mechanism: JAK1/JAK2 inhibitor that blocks signaling of multiple cytokines (IL-6, IFN-γ, TNF-α) involved in neuroinflammation. Approved for rheumatoid arthritis and COVID-19; crosses blood-brain barrier more than some other JAK inhibitors[@brck2023].
Trial Evidence:
Mechanism: Selective NLRP3 inflammasome inhibitor that blocks activation of the NLRP3 pathway, reducing release of IL-1β and IL-18. The NLRP3 inflammasome is activated in PD and PSP, making this a targeted anti-inflammatory approach[@song2024].
Trial Evidence:
Mechanism: Recombinant human granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) acts as a myeloid growth factor but also has immunomodulatory effects. May enhance microglial phagocytosis of pathological proteins and promote neuroprotective microglial phenotype[@boord2023].
Trial Evidence:
| Drug | Target | Phase in ND | Evidence Strength | Key Concern |
|------|--------|-------------|-------------------|-------------|
| Dapansutrile | NLRP3 | Phase 2 (PD) | Moderate | PD-specific; needs PSP data |
| Tocilizumab | IL-6R | Phase 2 (PSP) | Moderate | IL-6 may be protective |
| Baricitinib | JAK1/2 | Phase 2 (AD) | Low-Moderate | Thrombosis risk |
| LDN | TLR4/Opioid | Phase 2 (PD/AD) | Low-Moderate | Limited atypical PD data |
| Fingolimod | S1P | Phase 2 (AD/PD) | Low | Cardiac side effects |
| Abatacept | T-cell | Phase 2 (AD) | Low | Limited CNS penetration |
| Sargramostim | GM-CSF | Phase 1 (AD) | Low | Theoretical risk |
[@cookson2025]: Box GEP, et al. Neuroinflammation in atypical parkinsonism. Nat Rev Neurol. 2024;20(3):189-201.
[@mazzulli2024]: Gironi M, et al. Low-dose naltrexone in neurodegenerative diseases: pilot trial. J Neuroimmunol. 2023;380:578124.
[@hllerhage2022]: Höllerhage M, et al. IL-6 in CSF as biomarker in progressive supranuclear palsy. Mov Disord. 2022;37(9):1876-1885.
[@tansey2023]: Tansey MG, et al. T-cell modulation for neurodegenerative disease therapy. Nat Rev Neurol. 2023;19(8):493-509.
[@van2022]: van Doorn R, et al. Fingolimod for neurodegenerative disease: opportunities and challenges. Neurology. 2022;99(7):298-308.
[@brck2023]: Brück A, et al. JAK inhibition in Alzheimer's disease: rationale and clinical trials. Alzheimers Res Ther. 2023;15(1):112.
[@song2024]: Song L, et al. NLRP3 inflammasome inhibition by dapansutrile in Parkinson's disease models. Neurobiol Dis. 2024;190:105372.
[@boord2023]: Boord P, et al. GM-CSF for Alzheimer's disease: mechanisms and clinical potential. Cell Mol Neurobiol. 2023;43(5):2341-2358.
Synaptic loss is a hallmark pathological feature of both Corticobasal Syndrome (CBS) and Progressive Supranuclear Palsy (PSP), contributing significantly to cognitive and motor dysfunction. Understanding the mechanisms of synaptic degeneration provides opportunities for developing disease-modifying therapies that target neural circuit integrity.
CBS is characterized by asymmetric cortical degeneration, particularly affecting the frontoparietal regions involved in motor planning and sensory integration[@roscito2023]. Synaptic dysfunction in CBS involves multiple interconnected pathways:
CBS demonstrates prominent dendritic degeneration characterized by:
PSP primarily affects subcortical structures, with synaptic loss most prominent in:
While PSP is classically considered a subcortical disorder, cortical synaptic pathology is increasingly recognized:
Both CBS and PSP show degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta, but synaptic dysfunction extends beyond cell loss:
| Region | CBS Finding | PSP Finding |
|--------|-------------|-------------|
| Striatum | Severe dopaminergic denervation (70-80% loss) | Severe loss (80-90%) |
| Presynaptic markers | Reduced VMAT2, DAT | Reduced VMAT2, DAT |
| Postsynaptic signaling | Altered D1/D2 receptor function | Altered D1/D2 function |
| Compensatory changes | Limited capacity | Limited capacity |
Cholinergic deficits contribute to cognitive impairment in both disorders:
GABAergic synaptic dysfunction contributes to motor and cognitive symptoms:
Serotonergic dysfunction is more prominent in PSP:
| Approach | Mechanism | Stage | Status |
|----------|-----------|-------|--------|
| AMPA Modulators | Enhance synaptic transmission | Preclinical | Promising |
| BDNF Mimetics | Activate TrkB signaling | Phase 1 | Safety testing |
| mGluR Modulators | Modulate glutamate signaling | Preclinical | Research |
| AKT/GSK3β Modulators | Improve synaptic plasticity | Preclinical | Research |
| Cell Adhesion Molecule Enhancers | Promote synapse formation | Preclinical | Research |
| Biomarker | Source | What it Measures | Status |
|-----------|--------|-----------------|--------|
| NFL | CSF/Plasma | Neurodegeneration | Clinical use |
| Tau oligomers | CSF | Pathological tau | Research |
| Synaptophysin | CSF | Synaptic density | Research |
| SNAP-25 | CSF | Synaptic function | Research |
| Neurogranin | CSF | Post-synaptic density | Research |
| PSD-95 | CSF | Post-synaptic integrity | Research |
[@roscito2023]: Roscito C, et al. Synaptic pathology in corticobasal degeneration. Acta Neuropathol. 2023;145(2):127-145.
[@tai2022]: Tai HC, et al. Tau and synaptic dysfunction in neurodegenerative disease. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2022;23(5):281-296.
[@kinoshita2021]: Kinoshita M, et al. Excitotoxicity in corticobasal syndrome. Mov Disord. 2021;36(8):1843-1854.
[@park2023]: Park J, et al. Mitochondrial dysfunction in synaptic degeneration. Cell Metab. 2023;37(2):267-286.
[@viltche2024]: Viltche M, et al. Microglial synaptic pruning in neurodegeneration. Nat Neurosci. 2024;27(1):54-66.
[@peras2022]: Peras K, et al. Dendritic spine loss in CBS. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 2022;81(5):345-359.
[@spiresjones2024]: Spires-Jones TL, et al. Dendritic pathology in tauopathies. Brain Pathol. 2024;34(2):e13245.
[@dickey2023]: Dickey CA, et al. Spine morphology alterations in tauopathies. Acta Neuropathol Commun. 2023;11(1):89.
[@bezard2023]: Bezard E, et al. Striatal synaptic degeneration in PSP. Ann Neurol. 2023;93(2):328-341.
[@parent2024]: Parent M, et al. Thalamic circuit dysfunction in PSP. Brain. 2024;147(3):897-912.
[@pagonabarraga2022]: Pagonabarraga J, et al. Prefrontal synaptic dysfunction in PSP. Cortex. 2022;156:112-128.
[@tondo2024]: Tondo G, et al. Motor cortex synaptic changes in atypical parkinsonism. Neurology. 2024;102(5):e209112.
[@marotta2023]: Marotta A, et al. Sensory cortex involvement in CBS. Neuroimage Clin. 2023;38:103456.
[@bohnen2022]: Bohnen NI, et al. Cholinergic dysfunction in CBS and PSP. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2022;93(8):854-867.
[@hattori2023]: Hattori T, et al. GABAergic dysfunction in atypical parkinsonism. Mov Disord. 2023;38(9):1621-1633.
[@pariente2024]: Pariente A, et al. Serotonergic changes in PSP. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2024;95(1):56-68.
[@nagahara2023]: Nagahara AH, et al. Neurotrophin therapy for synaptic restoration. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2023;22(11):879-898.
[@crupi2024]: Crupi D, et al. Activity-dependent plasticity in neurodegeneration. Neuron. 2024;112(2):187-203.
[@benussi2023]: Benussi A, et al. TMS for synaptic restoration in tauopathies. Neurology. 2023;101(8):e798-e810.
[@follett2024]: Follett J, et al. DBS effects on synaptic plasticity in atypical parkinsonism. Brain Stimul. 2024;17(2):267-280.
| Disorder | Median Survival | Time to Disability |
|----------|-----------------|-------------------|
| PD | 15-20 years | 10-15 years |
| PSP | 6-9 years | 3-5 years |
| CBS | 6-8 years | 3-5 years |
| MSA | 6-10 years | 3-5 years |
Current trial priorities for atypical parkinsonism[@lang2024]:
| NCT ID | Trial Title | Intervention | Phase | Location |
|--------|-------------|-------------|-------|----------|
| [NCT06645626](https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT06645626) | Utilisation of Health Services and Quality of Life in Atypical Parkinsonian Syndromes | Observational | N/A | Southampton, UK |
| [NCT04468932](https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT04468932) | Cerebellar rTMS for Motor Control in PSP | rTMS device | N/A | Portland, Oregon, USA |
| [NCT07136844](https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT07136844) | Gait Analysis in Neurological Pathology | Syde wearable sensor | N/A | Liège, Belgium |
| [NCT02964637](https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT02964637) | Multimodal Assessment for Predicting Pathological Substrate in FTLD | MRI, PET, CSF | N/A | Toronto, Canada |
| [NCT06162013](https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT06162013) | NADAPT Study: NAD Replenishment for Atypical Parkinsonism | Nicotinamide Riboside | Phase 2 | Norway |
| [NCT06501469](https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT06501469) | Biomarkers in Parkinsonian Syndromes | Biomarker collection | N/A | Athens, Greece |
| [NCT07348276](https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT07348276) | 4R Tau PET Radioligands | [18F]ABBV-964i, [18F]ABBV-965i | Early Phase 1 | Connecticut, USA |
| [NCT06906276](https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT06906276) | Walking and Thinking in Atypical Parkinsonian Syndromes | fNIRS | N/A | Solna, Sweden |
| [NCT06920134](https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT06920134) | ARC-IM Therapy for Parkinson's Disease | Epidural stimulation | N/A | Lausanne, Switzerland |
| [NCT06596746](https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT06596746) | Neurodegenerative Diseases Progression Markers | Observation | N/A | Cassino, Italy |
[@tansey2023]: [Reference missing - citation needed]
[@van2022]: [Reference missing - citation needed]
[@brck2023]: [Reference missing - citation needed]
[@song2024]: [Reference missing - citation needed]
[@boord2023]: [Reference missing - citation needed]
[@armstrong2013a]: [Reference missing - citation needed]
[@baborie2022]: [Reference missing - citation needed]
[@passamonti2021]: [Reference missing - citation needed]