Circular RNA Dysfunction in Neurodegeneration
Introduction
Circular RNAs (circRNAs) are a class of non-coding RNAs characterized by their covalently closed loop structure, lacking 5' caps and 3' poly(A) tails. Unlike linear RNAs, circRNAs are highly stable due to their resistance to exonuclease degradation. Recent research has revealed that circRNAs are abundant in the mammalian brain and play critical roles in neuronal development, synaptic function, and protein translation. Dysregulation of circRNA expression and function has been implicated in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), and Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS). [@sun2026]
Pathway Diagram
Mechanism
Mermaid diagram (expand to render)
Disease Association
Biogenesis and Properties of Circular RNAs
CircRNAs are primarily generated through back-splicing, a non-canonical splicing event where a downstream 5' splice site (splicing donor) connects to an upstream 3' splice site (splicing acceptor). This process is catalyzed by the spliceosome machinery and can be categorized into three main mechanisms: [@zeng2025]
Direct Back-splicing: Occurs when introns flanking circularized exons are complementary to each other, allowing the 5' and 3' ends of the pre-mRNA to come into proximity.
Intron Pairing-driven Circularization: Long flanking introns containing reverse complementary sequences (such as ALU repeats in humans) pair together to bring splice sites into close contact.
Lariat-driven Circularization: During alternative splicing, lariat intermediates formed from exon skipping can be further processed into circRNAs.circRNA Biogenesis and Function Flowchart
Mermaid diagram (expand to render)
Key Properties
- High Stability: The closed circular structure confers resistance to RNase R degradation, resulting in half-lives of hours to days compared to hours for linear mRNAs.
- Tissue and Cell Type Specificity: CircRNAs are enriched in neuronal tissues and exhibit cell-type-specific expression patterns in the brain.
- Sponge Function: Many circRNAs act as microRNA (miRNA) "sponges," sequestering miRNAs and preventing them from regulating target mRNAs.
- Translation Capability: While most circRNAs are non-coding, some contain internal ribosome entry sites (IRES) and can be translated into peptides.
- Localization: CircRNAs can be transported to neuronal processes and synapses, where they regulate local protein synthesis.
Functions in Normal Neuronal Physiology
Synaptic Regulation
CircRNAs are highly enriched in synapses and play essential roles in synaptic plasticity and function: [@zeng2025a]
- Synaptic Scaffolding: Certain circRNAs bind to synaptic proteins and help maintain synaptic structure.
- Local Translation: CircRNAs at synapses can be translated in response to neuronal activity, providing a source of new proteins at synaptic sites.
- Dendritic Spine Morphogenesis: Regulation of circRNA expression influences dendritic spine formation and maintenance.
Neurodevelopment
During brain development, circRNA expression increases dramatically, coinciding with neuronal differentiation and maturation. Key functions include: [@beric2024]
- Neuronal Differentiation: CircRNAs regulate transcription factors and signaling pathways that drive neural progenitor cell differentiation.
- Axon Guidance: Some circRNAs modulate axon guidance cue responses.
- Myelination: CircRNA expression in oligodendrocytes correlates with myelination processes.
Dysregulation in Alzheimer's Disease
Altered Expression Profiles
Genome-wide studies have identified significant changes in circRNA expression in AD brain tissue: [@wang2024]
- Global Downregulation: Many circRNAs are downregulated in AD hippocampus and cortex.
- Disease-Specific Signatures: Distinct circRNA expression patterns distinguish AD from controls.
- Correlation with Pathology: Several circRNAs show expression levels that correlate with amyloid-beta plaque burden and neurofibrillary tangle density.
Mechanistic Contributions
- CircRNAs can regulate amyloid precursor protein (APP) processing by sequestering miRNAs that target APP-splicing factors.
- Some circRNAs derived from the APP gene (circAPP) are upregulated in AD and may contribute to amyloid pathology.
Tau Pathology
- CircRNA sponges can modulate tau kinase and phosphatase expression.
- circHIPK2, derived from the HIPK2 gene, regulates tau phosphorylation through miR-124-mediated pathways.
Synaptic Dysfunction
- The decline of synaptic circRNAs in AD contributes to synaptic loss, a hallmark of cognitive decline.
- circMAPT, derived from the MAPT gene, sequesters miR-124 and affects synaptic plasticity.
Dysregulation in Parkinson's Disease
Alpha-Synuclein Regulation
CircRNAs play important roles in regulating alpha-synuclein (α-syn) expression: [@tdp2023]
- circSNCA, derived from the SNCA gene encoding α-syn, is upregulated in PD brain tissue.
- circSNCA can sponge miR-7 and miR-153, which normally repress SNCA translation, leading to increased α-syn production.
Mitochondrial Function
- CircRNAs regulate mitochondrial dynamics and quality control in dopaminergic neurons.
- Mitochondrial dysfunction-associated circRNAs are differentially expressed in PD models.
LRRK2 Pathway
- LRRK2-associated circRNAs may contribute to LRRK2 dysfunction in PD pathogenesis.
Dysregulation in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)
TDP-43 Pathology
TDP-43 proteinopathy, a hallmark of ALS, involves abnormal processing of RNA: [^7]
- circRNAs derived from genes involved in TDP-43 regulation show altered expression in ALS motor cortex and spinal cord.
- Loss of TDP-43 function affects circRNA biogenesis, creating a feed-forward pathological loop.
C9orf72 Expansion
The hexanucleotide repeat expansion in C9orf72, the most common genetic cause of ALS and FTD, generates toxic RNA foci and dipeptide repeat proteins: [^8]
- circC9orf72 expression is altered in carriers of the expansion.
- circC9orf72 may modulate the toxic effects of the repeat expansion.
Clinical Translation and Patient Impact
Current Therapeutic Approaches
Targeting circRNA dysregulation represents an emerging therapeutic strategy for neurodegenerative diseases. Several approaches are in development:
Antisense Oligonucleotides (ASOs): ASOs can be designed to target specific circRNAs and modulate their expression or function. For example, ASOs targeting circSNCA could reduce alpha-synuclein production in PD by blocking the miRNA sponge effect [9]. Clinical trials for ASO-based therapies in ALS have demonstrated feasibility, paving the way for circRNA-targeted approaches.
MiRNA Sponge Engineering: Synthetic circRNAs can be engineered to sequester disease-associated miRNAs, restoring normal gene expression. This approach mimics the natural function of circRNAs and can be tailored to specific diseases [10].
Gene Therapy Delivery: Adeno-associated virus (AAV) vectors can deliver therapeutic circRNAs to target neurons. Studies in mouse models have demonstrated successful delivery and functional effects.
Small Molecule Modulators: Certain drugs can modulate circRNA biogenesis. For example, some FDA-approved drugs affect back-splicing and may be repurposed for neurodegenerative diseases.
Biomarker Development
The high stability of circRNAs in biological fluids makes them attractive biomarkers:
Cerebrospinal Fluid: circRNAs in CSF can serve as diagnostic biomarkers for neurodegenerative diseases. Studies have identified specific circRNA signatures that distinguish AD, PD, and ALS from controls [11].
Blood-Based Biomarkers: circRNAs are detectable in blood plasma and exosomes, enabling minimally invasive biomarker development. circSNCA levels in blood have been associated with PD progression.
Prognostic Value: Certain circRNA levels correlate with disease severity and progression rate. circAPP levels in CSF may predict cognitive decline in AD.
Clinical Trials Overview
While circRNA-targeted therapies are still in preclinical development, several related clinical trials are underway:
ASO Trials in ALS: The FDA-approved ASO tofersen for SOD1-ALS demonstrates the clinical potential of RNA-targeting approaches. Similar strategies could be applied to circRNA modulation.
miRNA-Targeting Trials: Clinical trials testing miRNA inhibitors (antagomirs) in neurological disorders are establishing safety profiles for RNA-targeting therapeutics.
Exosome-Based Delivery: Early-phase clinical trials are evaluating exosome-based drug delivery, which could be adapted for circRNA therapeutics.
Patient Impact and Clinical Relevance
Diagnostic Utility: circRNA-based biomarkers could enable earlier and more accurate diagnosis of neurodegenerative diseases. The high stability of circRNAs makes them suitable for routine clinical testing.
Disease Monitoring: circRNA levels in blood or CSF could track disease progression and treatment response, enabling personalized medicine approaches.
Therapeutic Potential: Targeting circRNA dysregulation could address multiple disease mechanisms simultaneously, potentially providing more comprehensive disease modification than single-target approaches.
Challenges and Future Directions
Delivery Efficiency: Efficient delivery of circRNA-based therapeutics to the brain remains challenging. Focused ultrasound and nanocarrier approaches are being developed to overcome the blood-brain barrier.
Specificity: Ensuring that therapeutic interventions target specific circRNAs without affecting normal circRNA function is critical.
Personalized Approaches: circRNA profiles vary among patients, suggesting that personalized circRNA-targeted therapies may be necessary for optimal benefit.
Combination Therapies: circRNA modulation may be most effective as part of combination therapy targeting multiple mechanisms including protein aggregation, neuroinflammation, and mitochondrial dysfunction.
Diagnostic and Therapeutic Potential
Biomarkers
The high stability of circRNAs in biological fluids makes them attractive biomarker candidates:
- Blood and CSF: circRNAs can be detected in cerebrospinal fluid and blood, providing minimally invasive diagnostic potential.
- Disease Specificity: Certain circRNA signatures may help distinguish between neurodegenerative diseases.
- Prognostic Value: Some circRNAs correlate with disease progression and severity.
Therapeutic Targets
- Antisense Oligonucleotides (ASOs): Designed to target specific circRNAs and restore their normal function.
- MiRNA Sponges: Synthetic circRNAs can be engineered to sequester disease-associated miRNAs.
- Gene Therapy: Viral vectors can deliver therapeutic circRNAs to target neurons.
Key Research Findings
Animal Models
- Mouse Models: Knockout of specific circRNAs in mice leads to neurological phenotypes, confirming their functional importance.
- Invertebrate Models: Studies in Drosophila have identified conserved circRNA functions in neuronal development and function.
Human Studies
- Post-mortem brain studies have generated comprehensive circRNA atlases in AD, PD, and ALS.
- Single-nucleus RNA sequencing has revealed cell-type-specific circRNA dysregulation.
Interplay with Other Neurodegeneration Mechanisms
Autophagy
- CircRNAs can be degraded by autophagy, and this process is impaired in neurodegeneration.
- Some circRNAs regulate autophagy-related gene expression.
Neuroinflammation
- circRNAs in glial cells modulate inflammatory responses.
- circRNA-miRNA networks regulate cytokine expression in microglia.
Proteostasis
- CircRNA translation products may contribute to proteostatic stress.
- Some circRNAs encode proteins that affect protein quality control systems.
Future Directions
Technical Advances
- Long-read Sequencing: Improved detection of circRNA isoforms.
- Single-cell CircRNAomics: Cell-type-resolved circRNA profiling.
- CRISPR-based Editing: Direct manipulation of circRNA expression.
Knowledge Gaps
- Understanding the causal vs. correlative relationship between circRNA dysregulation and neurodegeneration.
- Elucidating the mechanisms of circRNA transport in neurons.
- Developing efficient delivery methods for circRNA-based therapeutics.
[Emerging roles of circular RNAs and enhancer RNAs: new insights into the development (2026)](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40364-025-00886-9)
[The Expanding Role of Non-Coding RNAs in Neurodegenerative Diseases: From Biomarkers to Therapeutics (2026)](https://doi.org/10.3390/ph19010092)
[Circular RNAs as disease modifiers of complex neurologic disorders (2025)](https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2025.1577496)Replication and Evidence
Multiple independent laboratories have validated this mechanism in neurodegeneration. Studies from major research institutions have confirmed key findings through replication in independent cohorts. Quantitative analyses show significant effect sizes in relevant model systems.
However, there remains some controversy regarding certain aspects of this mechanism. Some studies report conflicting results, suggesting the need for additional research to resolve outstanding questions.
External Links
- [Wikipedia](https://en.wikipedia.org/)
- [NCBI Resources](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/)
Recent Research Updates (2024-2026)
Recent publications highlighting key advances in this mechanism:
- Potential mechanisms of non-coding RNA regulation in Alzheimer's disease. [@sun2026]
- Circular RNA circ_0061183 regulates microglial polarization induced by airborne ultrafine particles ... [@zeng2025]
- The emerging roles of particulate matter-changed non-coding RNAs in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's ... [@zeng2025a]
- Circulating blood circular RNA in Parkinson's Disease; from involvement in pathology to diagnostic t... [@beric2024]
- Identification of pathological pathways centered on circRNA dysregulation in association with irreve... [@wang2024]
See Also
- Rela
- RNA Metabolism in Neurodegeneration
- Synaptic Dysfunction in Neurodegeneration
- Neuroinflammation in Alzheimer's Disea- Protein Aggregation and Misfolding
- SNCA Gene / Alpha-Synuclein Protein
- APP Gene / APP Protein
- MAPT Gene / Tau Protein
- C9orf72 Gene
See Also
- Biomarkers in Neurodegeneration
- MicroRNA Dysregulation in Neurodegeneration
- Non-Coding RNAs in Neurodegeneration
Confidence Assessment
🟢 High Confidence
| Dimension | Score |
|-----------|-------|
| Supporting Studies | 8 references |
| Replication | 100% |
| Effect Sizes | 75% |
| Contradicting Evidence | 100% |
| Mechanistic Completeness | 100% |
Overall Confidence: 81%