Non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) techniques, primarily [transcranial magnetic stimulation](/mechanisms/transcranial-magnetic-stimulation) (TMS) and [transcranial direct current stimulation](/mechanisms/transcranial-direct-current-stimulation) (tDCS), represent emerging therapeutic approaches for [corticobasal syndrome](/diseases/corticobasal-syndrome) (CBS). These techniques modulate cortical excitability and have shown promise in addressing both motor and cognitive symptoms in CBS and related tauopathies[@steven2020].
The rationale for NIBS in CBS stems from the condition's prominent cortical pathology, including motor cortex degeneration, intracortical inhibition deficits, and abnormal excitability patterns. Unlike pharmacological approaches that target neurotransmitter systems broadly, NIBS can selectively modulate specific cortical circuits affected in CBS, potentially addressing the underlying circuit dysfunction with greater precision[@benecke2001].
Non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) techniques, primarily [transcranial magnetic stimulation](/mechanisms/transcranial-magnetic-stimulation) (TMS) and [transcranial direct current stimulation](/mechanisms/transcranial-direct-current-stimulation) (tDCS), represent emerging therapeutic approaches for [corticobasal syndrome](/diseases/corticobasal-syndrome) (CBS). These techniques modulate cortical excitability and have shown promise in addressing both motor and cognitive symptoms in CBS and related tauopathies[@steven2020].
The rationale for NIBS in CBS stems from the condition's prominent cortical pathology, including motor cortex degeneration, intracortical inhibition deficits, and abnormal excitability patterns. Unlike pharmacological approaches that target neurotransmitter systems broadly, NIBS can selectively modulate specific cortical circuits affected in CBS, potentially addressing the underlying circuit dysfunction with greater precision[@benecke2001].
TMS operates by delivering brief, high-intensity magnetic pulses that induce electrical currents in the cerebral cortex, allowing for non-invasive neuronal stimulation through the intact skull. This technique produces several key physiological effects that are particularly relevant in CBS. When applied over the motor cortex, TMS induces motor evoked potentials (MEPs) that elicit contractions in target muscles via corticospinal pathways, providing a direct measure of motor pathway integrity. Additionally, TMS can modulate intracortical inhibition, which is particularly important given that CBS patients typically show reduced short-interval intracortical inhibition (SICI). Repetitive TMS protocols can help normalize these inhibitory deficits. The technique also demonstrates significant plasticity-inducing capabilities, as high-frequency rTMS and theta-burst stimulation (TBS) promote long-term potentiation (LTP)-like changes in cortical circuits. Furthermore, TMS exhibits transcallosal effects, whereby stimulation of one hemisphere can modulate the contralateral motor cortex through corpus callosum pathways.
Repetitive TMS protocols are categorized based on their frequency and resulting physiological effects. High-frequency rTMS, delivered at rates greater than 5 Hz, increases cortical excitability and is typically applied to the primary motor cortex (M1) to address motor symptoms. Standard parameters include 10 Hz stimulation delivered over 20 sessions at 90-120% of the motor threshold. In contrast, low-frequency rTMS protocols delivered at 1 Hz or less decrease cortical excitability and are used for suppressing hyperactive regions, making them particularly suitable for addressing the cortical hyperexcitability observed in CBS. Theta-burst stimulation represents an emerging protocol with potentially faster therapeutic effects. This approach includes intermittent TBS (iTBS), which delivers 600 pulses over 192 seconds to promote excitability, and continuous TBS (cTBS), which also delivers 600 pulses but reduces excitability instead. The precision of these interventions is further enhanced by navigated TMS, which uses MRI-guided targeting to ensure precise stimulation of specific cortical areas, thereby improving accuracy and reducing variability in treatment outcomes.
Clinical applications of TMS in CBS focus primarily on motor symptom management, with specific protocols tailored to different manifestations of the disease. For dystonia and rigidity, high-frequency rTMS is applied over the primary motor cortex contralateral to the affected limb. Studies have demonstrated that this approach can produce 30-50% improvement in dystonia severity scales, and when combined with physical therapy, may provide enhanced motor gains. Myoclonus, another prominent feature of CBS, is addressed using low-frequency rTMS delivered over the supplementary motor area (SMA) or parietal cortex, as cortical myoclonus in CBS may respond to targeted suppression of these hyperactive regions.
tDCS applies low-intensity direct current (1-2 mA) via scalp electrodes to modulate cortical excitability.
Key effects:
Primary motor cortex (M1) anodal tDCS:
DLPFC tDCS for cognitive symptoms:
Motor + cognitive dual-target:
| Parameter | rTMS | tDCS |
|-----------|------|------|
| Mechanism | Magnetic induction of current | Direct electrical modulation |
| Depth of penetration | Deep (3-4 cm) | Superficial (1-2 cm) |
| Focality | High (with neuronavigation) | Moderate (large electrodes) |
| Session duration | 20-45 min | 20-30 min |
| Number of sessions | 5-20 | 10-20 |
| Pain/discomfort | Mild (scalp discomfort) | Minimal (tingling) |
| Motor effect size | Moderate | Small-Moderate |
| Cognitive effect size | Small-Moderate | Small |
| Availability | Specialized centers | More widely available |
| Cost | Higher | Lower |
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) presents several important safety considerations that must be carefully evaluated before implementation. The primary contraindications include metallic implants, pacemakers, and epilepsy, with the latter being considered a relative rather than absolute contraindication. When TMS is administered, patients commonly experience mild side effects such as scalp discomfort, headache, and transient hearing changes, though these are generally well-tolerated and temporary. The risk of seizure induction remains very low when standard protocols are followed, occurring in fewer than 0.1% of cases. Regarding cognitive effects, TMS generally produces minimal impact, although some reports have documented transient confusion in certain patients.
Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) demonstrates an excellent safety profile that makes it particularly suitable for repeated use in research and clinical applications. The most common adverse effect is mild skin irritation presenting as erythema under the electrode sites, which typically resolves quickly after stimulation. Patients may also experience headache following tDCS sessions, but this symptom is usually transient and manageable. In contrast to some other brain stimulation modalities, tDCS has not been associated with significant adverse cognitive changes in clinical studies. This favorable safety profile extends to long-term use, with repeated applications considered to have excellent safety characteristics for extended treatment protocols.
Cortico-basal syndrome patients require additional safety considerations that reflect the unique challenges posed by this neurodegenerative condition. The cognitive impairment inherent to CBS may significantly limit patients' ability to cooperate with stimulation procedures, necessitating careful assessment of each individual's capacity to participate effectively. Furthermore, the characteristically asymmetric presentation of CBS symptoms requires meticulous attention to the lateralization of stimulation targets to ensure appropriate therapeutic targeting. As the disease progresses, the evolution of symptoms may necessitate ongoing adjustment of stimulation parameters to maintain effectiveness and safety. This complexity underscores the importance of conducting a careful assessment of the benefit versus burden ratio for each patient, ensuring that the potential therapeutic gains justify the procedural demands and any associated risks.
Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) applies low-intensity direct current of 1-2 mA via scalp electrodes to modulate cortical excitability through distinct mechanisms of action. Anodal stimulation increases cortical excitability and promotes depolarization, while cathodal stimulation decreases excitability and promotes hyperpolarization. These effects are mediated through neuroplasticity mechanisms that modulate NMDA receptor activity and promote synaptic strengthening. Importantly, tDCS allows for regional targeting of specific cortical regions that are characteristically affected in corticobasal syndrome[@chen2021].
Motor cortex stimulation represents a primary therapeutic approach, with anodal tDCS of the primary motor cortex (M1) targeting electrode placement over C3/C4 according to the international 10-20 system. Treatment protocols typically employ currents of 1-2 mA for 20-30 minutes per session, delivered over 5-10 sessions spanning 2-4 weeks. This approach may improve motor function in CBS when combined with rehabilitation interventions. In addition to primary motor cortex stimulation, cerebellar tDCS specifically targets the cerebellum for gait and postural symptoms. Cathodal stimulation over the cerebellum may reduce abnormal cerebello-thalamic output, with emerging evidence supporting its use in other parkinsonian syndromes.
Prefrontal cortex stimulation addresses the cognitive manifestations of CBS through targeted interventions. Left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) anodal stimulation specifically targets executive dysfunction[@chen2021], while bilateral tDCS protocols address more widespread cognitive involvement. These approaches may improve working memory, attention, and task completion abilities. Furthermore, medial prefrontal cortex stimulation may specifically address motivational deficits and apathy that commonly occur in CBS patients.
Combination approaches have emerged as promising strategies that simultaneously address multiple symptom domains. Dual-target protocols combining M1 and DLPFC stimulation can be delivered either simultaneously or sequentially, with sequential protocols typically involving morning motor sessions followed by afternoon cognitive sessions. This comprehensive approach may effectively address both motor and cognitive symptom domains simultaneously.
The clinical evidence base for tDCS in CBS remains limited, with few controlled trials conducted specifically in this population. Much of the supporting evidence is extrapolated from studies in Parkinson's disease, progressive supranuclear palsy, and frontotemporal dementia. Small case series and open-label studies suggest modest benefit from tDCS interventions, and the technique is generally well-tolerated with minimal side effects reported across studies.