Combination Therapy Approaches in Neurodegenerative Disease
Introduction
<table class="infobox infobox-therapeutic">
<tr>
<th class="infobox-header" colspan="2">Combination Therapy Approaches in Neurodegenerative Disease</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="label">Name</td>
<td><strong>Combination Therapy Approaches in Neurodegenerative Disease</strong></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="label">Type</td>
<td>Therapeutic</td>
</tr>
</table>
Overview
Mermaid diagram (expand to render)
Combination therapy — the use of two or more therapeutic agents or modalities simultaneously — is increasingly recognized as essential for treating neurodegenerative diseases, which involve multiple interacting pathological mechanisms. The limited success of single-target approaches in conditions like [Alzheimer's disease](/diseases/alzheimers-disease), [Parkinson's disease](/diseases/parkinsons-disease), and [ALS](/diseases/amyotrophic-lateral-sclerosis) has driven the field toward multi-target strategies that address the complex, multifactorial nature of neurodegeneration.[@cummings2024]
As of 2025, the Alzheimer's Disease drug development pipeline includes 21 combination therapy trials, comprising approximately 13% of all active trials — a trend that is expected to accelerate as more individual agents receive regulatory approval. The EU/US CTAD Task Force has identified combination therapy as the central strategic priority for the next decade of AD drug development.[@scheltens2021]
As of 2025, the Alzheimer's Disease drug development pipeline includes 20 combination therapy trials, comprising approximately 11% of all active trials — a trend that is expected to accelerate as more individual agents receive regulatory approval [@scheltens2021].## Rationale for Combination Therapy [@rochfort2023]
Multifactorial Disease Biology
Neurodegenerative diseases involve multiple concurrent pathological processes: [@huang2022]
- [Protein aggregation](/mechanisms/protein-aggregation) ([amyloid-beta](/proteins/amyloid-beta)/proteins/amyloid, tau]/proteins/tau, [alpha-synuclein](/proteins/alpha-synuclein)/proteins/alpha, [TDP-43](/proteins/tdp-43)/proteins/tdp-43)
- [neuroinflammation](/mechanisms/neuroinflammation) (activated [microglia](/entities/microglia)
- [Cellular senescence](/mechanisms/cellular-senescence)
- Metabolic dysregulation (insulin resistance, lipid metabolism)
- Epigenetic alterations ([histone modifications](/entities/histone-modifications), [DNA methylation](/entities/dna-methylation) changes)
Targeting only one mechanism may be insufficient because compensatory pathways and parallel disease processes continue to drive neurodegeneration. Combination therapy aims to create synergistic effects by simultaneously blocking multiple pathological pathways.[@rochfort2023] [@milton2021]
- [Protein aggregation](/mechanisms/protein-aggregation) ([Amyloid-Beta](/proteins/amyloid-beta), tau]/proteins/tau, [alpha-synuclein](/proteins/alpha-synuclein), [TDP-43](/proteins/tdp-43)
- [neuroinflammation](/mechanisms/neuroinflammation) (activated [microglia](/cell-types/microglia)/cell-types/microglia, reactive [astrocytes](/cell-types/astrocytes)
- [Mitochondrial dysfunction](/mechanisms/mitochondrial-dysfunction)
- [Synaptic dysfunction](/mechanisms/synaptic-dysfunction) and loss
- [oxidative stress](/mechanisms/oxidative-stress)
- [autophagy](/mechanisms/autophagy-lysosome-neurodegeneration) impairment
- Vascular dysfunction ([blood-brain barrier](/entities/blood-brain-barrier) breakdown)### Lessons from Oncology and Infectious Disease
The success of combination therapy in cancer (e.g., checkpoint inhibitors + chemotherapy + targeted therapy) and HIV (triple antiretroviral therapy — HAART) provides a strong precedent. In both fields, combination approaches transformed previously fatal diseases into manageable conditions:[@cummings2024] [@simmons2023]
- Oncology parallel: Cancer therapy evolved from single-agent chemotherapy to rational combinations based on molecular profiling of individual tumors. Neurodegeneration is following a similar trajectory, with [biomarker-guided](/therapeutics/biomarker-guided-therapy) patient stratification enabling personalized combination selection
- HIV parallel: Triple antiretroviral therapy targets viral replication at multiple steps (reverse transcription, integration, protease cleavage). Analogously, combination neuroprotection targets multiple cell death pathways simultaneously
- Key insight: In both oncology and HIV, monotherapy consistently led to resistance or escape; multi-target approaches were necessary for durable disease control
Pharmacological Synergy vs. Additivity
Combination therapy can produce three types of interaction:[@huang2022] [@zhang2022]
- Synergistic: Combined effect exceeds the sum of individual effects (e.g., anti-amyloid + anti-inflammatory may synergize because amyloid clearance requires functional, non-hyper-activated [microglia](/cell-types/microglia)
- Additive: Combined effect equals the sum of individual effects (e.g., symptomatic + disease-modifying agents addressing independent dimensions of disease)
- Antagonistic: Combined effect is less than expected — a critical risk that must be evaluated in factorial trial designs
Combination Strategies in Alzheimer's Disease
Anti-Amyloid + Anti-Tau
The most conceptually compelling combination targets both hallmark pathologies of AD: [@kaur2023]
- [lecanemab](/therapeutics/lecanemab)/therapeutics/lecanemab) or [donanemab](/therapeutics/donanemab) (anti-amyloid antibodies) combined with anti-tau] antibodies (e.g., semorinemab, E2814, bepranemab) or tau]-targeted therapeutics
- Rationale: Clearing amyloid alone does not halt [tau](/proteins/tau) spreading; [tau](/proteins/tau) pathology correlates more closely with cognitive decline than amyloid burden. Addressing both may provide additive or synergistic benefit
- The EU/US CTAD Task Force has highlighted this combination as a central focus for the field, with several trials in planning stages[@milton2021]
- DIAN-TU platform: Testing anti-amyloid + anti-tau combinations in dominantly inherited AD, leveraging the genetic certainty and predictable disease course of autosomal dominant mutations
- [Lecanemab](/therapeutics/lecanemab) or [donanemab](/therapeutics/donanemab) (anti-amyloid antibodies) combined with anti-tau] antibodies (e.g., semorinemab, E2814) or tau-targeted therapeutics](/therapeutics/tau-targeted-therapeutics)
- Rationale: Clearing amyloid alone does not halt tau spreading; addressing both may provide additive or synergistic benefit
- The EU/US CTAD Task Force has highlighted this combination as a central focus for the field [@huang2022]### Anti-Amyloid + Anti-Inflammatory
Ten combination trials currently target both amyloid and [inflammation]:[@scheltens2021] [@bartels2023]
- Anti-amyloid antibodies combined with microglial modulators, complement inhibitors, or [TREM2](/proteins/trem2-protein) agonists
- Rationale: [neuroinflammation](/mechanisms/neuroinflammation) accelerates disease progression independent of amyloid; the neuroinflammatory response to amyloid clearance (including ARIA may actually limit the benefit of anti-amyloid monotherapy
- Complement pathway targeting: ANX005 (anti-C1q antibody) combined with anti-amyloid therapy may reduce synaptic complement-mediated pruning that continues even after amyloid clearance
Cell-Type-Directed Network-Correcting Combination Therapy
A landmark 2025 Cell publication introduced a data-driven approach to combination therapy design using cell-type-specific transcriptomic networks:[@simmons2023] [@palop2016]
- Approach: Integrated single-cell transcriptomics from [SEA-AD/projects/sea-ad) and [Allen Brain Cell Atlas](/datasets/allen-brain-atlas) with drug perturbation databases and electronic medical records from 1.4 million adults aged 65+ across six University of California health systems
- Identified combination: Letrozole (an aromatase inhibitor, normally used for breast cancer) targeting disease-associated gene expression in glial cells + irinotecan (a topoisomerase inhibitor, normally used for colon/lung cancer) targeting neuronal disease networks
- Preclinical results: In an AD mouse model with both amyloid and tau pathology, the letrozole + irinotecan combination significantly improved memory performance and reduced AD-related pathologies compared to vehicle or either drug alone
- Transcriptomic validation: Single-nucleus transcriptomic analysis confirmed that the therapy reversed disease-associated gene networks in a cell-type-specific manner — letrozole correcting glial networks and irinotecan correcting neuronal networks
- Real-world evidence: EMR analysis showed that prior exposure to either letrozole or irinotecan was associated with lower AD incidence after propensity-matched adjustment for demographics, comorbidities, and cancer indications
- Paradigm shift: This study demonstrates that rational combination therapy can be designed computationally from human data rather than empirically tested in animal models
Senolytic Combinations
Dasatinib + quercetin is being tested in AD as a senolytic combination that eliminates senescent cells thought to drive chronic neuroinflammation. The SToMP-AD pilot trial (2022) demonstrated safety and CNS target engagement based on CSF biomarker changes; a larger follow-up Phase 2 trial is ongoing.[@zhang2022]
Symptomatic + Disease-Modifying
Combining approved symptomatic treatments with emerging disease-modifying therapies:
- [Cholinesterase inhibitors](/entities/cholinesterase-inhibitors) ([donepezil](/therapeutics/donepezil), [galantamine](/therapeutics/galantamine), [rivastigmine](/therapeutics/rivastigmine) + anti-amyloid therapy
- [Memantine](/therapeutics/memantine) + anti-amyloid therapy
- Rationale: Maintain cognitive benefit from symptomatic treatment while slowing underlying disease progression with disease-modifying agents
- Clinical complexity: Many AD patients are already on cholinesterase inhibitors ± memantine when starting anti-amyloid therapy, making this a de facto combination in clinical practice
GLP-1 Agonist Combinations
[GLP-1 receptor agonists](/therapeutics/glp1-receptor-agonists) are emerging as a complementary neuroprotective component in AD combination strategies:[@kaur2023]
- Semaglutide is in the EVOKE Plus trial (3-year, 1,800+ patients) for early AD
- Liraglutide Phase 2b (ELAD trial, 2024) showed ~50% reduction in brain volume loss and up to 18% slower cognitive decline
- Combination potential: GLP-1 agonists address metabolic dysfunction, neuroinflammation, and insulin resistance — pathways orthogonal to anti-amyloid and anti-tau therapies, making them logical combination partners
- Real-world evidence: A 2025 retrospective cohort study found that GLP-1 RA use was associated with a 70% reduced dementia risk compared to controls
Combination Strategies in Parkinson's Disease
Motor Symptom Management
[Levodopa](/therapeutics/levodopa) is typically combined with carbidopa (peripheral decarboxylase inhibitor) and may be augmented with:[@bartels2023]
- [COMT inhibitors/therapeutics/comt (entacapone, opicapone) to extend levodopa duration and reduce "off" time
- [MAO-B inhibitors/therapeutics/mao-b (rasagiline, safinamide) for additional dopamine modulation — safinamide also has anti-glutamatergic activity, providing a dual mechanism
- [Dopamine agonists](/therapeutics/dopamine-agonists) (pramipexole, ropinirole, rotigotine) for early disease or as adjunctive therapy
- Amantadine: [NMDA receptor](/entities/nmda-receptor)] receptor antagonist for levodopa-induced dyskinesia management
- Istradefylline: Adenosine A2A receptor antagonist as adjunctive therapy for motor fluctuations
- [COMT inhibitors](/therapeutics/comt-inhibitors) (entacapone, opicapone) to extend levodopa duration
- [MAO-B inhibitors](/therapeutics/mao-b-inhibitors) (rasagiline, safinamide) for additional dopamine modulation
- [Dopamine agonists](/therapeutics/dopamine-agonists) (pramipexole, ropinirole) for early disease### Disease-Modifying Combinations in PD
The convergence of multiple genetically validated targets in PD creates a strong rationale for combination disease modification:
- LRRK2 inhibitors + [GBA1](/proteins/gba-protein) modulators: Targeting two key genetic risk pathways that converge on lysosomal dysfunction. LRRK2 kinase inhibitors (BIIB122, DNL151) and GBA1 activators (venglustat, ambroxol) each address distinct but interconnected aspects of the [autophagy](/entities/autophagy)-lysosomal pathway
- Anti-[alpha-synuclein](/proteins/alpha-synuclein) immunotherapy + [GLP-1 receptor agonists](/therapeutics/glp1-receptor-agonists): Combining protein clearance ([prasinezumab](/therapeutics/prasinezumab) with metabolic neuroprotection — addressing both the specific pathological protein and the cellular environment that promotes its aggregation
- Iron chelation + anti-inflammatory: Deferiprone (reducing SNpc iron) combined with microglial modulators — addressing the neuromelanin-iron-inflammation axis
- Gene therapy combinations: AAV-GBA1 (restoring lysosomal function) + ASO-SNCA (reducing [alpha-synuclein](/proteins/alpha-synuclein) expression) represents a potential future gene-level combination
- [Deep brain stimulation](/therapeutics/deep-brain-stimulation) + neuroprotective pharmacotherapy: DBS addresses symptoms while neuroprotective agents may slow disease progression, potentially extending the therapeutic window of DBS effectiveness
Gut-Brain Axis Combinations
Emerging evidence for the [Gut-Brain Axis](/entities/gut-brain-axis) in PD has spawned novel combination approaches:
- Probiotics + standard PD therapy to modulate gut microbiome composition
- GLP-1 agonists (which have gut-level effects) + anti-alpha-synuclein therapy
- Targeting enteric alpha-synuclein (where PD pathology may originate in combination with CNS-directed therapy
Combination Strategies in ALS
- [Riluzole](/therapeutics/riluzole) + [edaravone](/therapeutics/edaravone): Both FDA-approved; combined use is standard of care
- [Tofersen](/therapeutics/tofersen) (antisense oligonucleotide for [SOD1](/proteins/sod1-protein) ALS) + symptomatic therapies
- AMX0035 (sodium phenylbutyrate + taurursodiol): Targeting both endoplasmic reticulum stress and mitochondrial dysfunction
- [Gene therapy](/therapeutics/gene-therapy) + anti-inflammatory agents### Current Standard of Care Combinations
- [Riluzole](/therapeutics/riluzole) + [edaravone](/therapeutics/edaravone): Both FDA-approved; combined use is current standard of care, targeting glutamate excitotoxicity and oxidative stress respectively[@palop2016]
- AMX0035 (Relyvrio): Sodium phenylbutyrate + taurursodiol — targeting both endoplasmic reticulum stress and mitochondrial dysfunction in a single formulation. FDA-approved in 2022, though the confirmatory PHOENIX trial (2024) failed to show benefit, leading to voluntary market withdrawal
Genotype-Specific Combinations
- [Tofersen](/therapeutics/tofersen) (antisense oligonucleotide for [SOD1](/proteins/sod1-protein) ALS) + riluzole: Gene-targeted therapy combined with standard neuroprotection. Long-term extension data (2025) showed sustained benefit of tofersen with ongoing riluzole[^11]
- [C9orf72](/proteins/c9orf72-protein)-directed ASOs + anti-inflammatory agents: Targeting the most common genetic cause of familial ALS while addressing the neuroinflammation that accompanies DPR protein accumulation
- Jacifusen (anti-FUS ASO) + symptomatic management: For the aggressive FUS-mutant form of ALS
Emerging ALS Combinations
- [Gene therapy](/therapeutics/gene-therapy) + anti-inflammatory agents: AAV-mediated gene replacement combined with neuroinflammation-targeted therapies
- Antisense oligonucleotide + stem cell therapy: Gene silencing of toxic proteins combined with trophic support from transplanted neural progenitors
- Multi-target small molecules: Masitinib (CSF1R/PDGFR inhibitor with both neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory properties) showed positive Phase 3 results when added to riluzole
Combination Strategies in Huntington's Disease
Current Approaches
- Tetrabenazine/deutetrabenazine (VMAT2 inhibitors for chorea) + antidepressants/antipsychotics for psychiatric symptoms represents de facto combination therapy for HD symptom management
- [HTT](/proteins/htt-protein)-lowering therapies + neuroprotective agents: Despite setbacks with tominersen (anti-[HTT](/proteins/htt-protein) ASO), next-generation allele-selective ASOs and siRNAs targeting mutant [HTT](/genes/htt) may be combined with [autophagy-enhancing therapies](/therapeutics/autophagy-enhancing-therapies) to clear both the mRNA and accumulated protein
Emerging HD Combinations
- CRISPR-based HTT editing + neuroprotective support: Gene editing to reduce mutant HTT production combined with pharmacological neuroprotection during the post-editing recovery period
- Splice-switching oligonucleotides + symptomatic therapy: Targeting HTT pre-mRNA processing while managing symptoms
Multi-Target-Directed Ligands (MTDLs)
An alternative to multi-drug combinations is the design of single molecules that hit multiple targets — poly-pharmacology by design:[^12]
- Dual AChE/MAO-B inhibitors: Ladostigil and ASS234 combine cholinesterase inhibition with monoamine oxidase inhibition in a single molecule, addressing both cholinergic and monoaminergic deficits in AD
- Metal chelator-antioxidant hybrids: M30 and HLA20 combine iron chelation with radical scavenging and MAO inhibition — triple-action molecules for PD
- Anti-aggregation/anti-inflammatory hybrids: Single molecules that inhibit [amyloid-beta](/proteins/amyloid-beta) aggregation while simultaneously modulating NF-kappaB-mediated inflammation
- Advantages: Simplified pharmacokinetics, no drug-drug interactions, improved patient compliance
- Challenges: Achieving balanced potency across multiple targets; regulatory pathway uncertainty (novel compound vs. combination product)
Challenges and Considerations
Safety and Drug-Drug Interactions
Combining multiple agents increases the risk of adverse effects, drug-drug interactions, and cumulative toxicity. For example, combining anti-amyloid antibodies with other immunomodulatory agents may increase the risk of ARIA (amyloid-related imaging abnormalities). The 2023 TRAILBLAZER-ALZ 2 trial for [donanemab](/therapeutics/donanemab) revealed that anticoagulant use significantly increased ARIA risk, highlighting the importance of careful drug interaction assessment in combination regimens.[^13]
Trial Design Complexity
Combination trials require factorial or adaptive designs that are more complex and expensive than single-agent trials. Key design considerations include:[@huang2022]
- 2x2 factorial designs: Testing both drugs individually and in combination against placebo — requires 4x the sample size of a simple two-arm trial
- Adaptive platform trials: [DIAN](/entities/dian-study), GBM AGILE, and I-SPY models allow efficient testing of multiple combinations with shared control arms
- Biomarker-enriched designs: Enrolling only patients with specific pathological profiles (e.g., amyloid-positive + tau-positive + inflammatory) to maximize signal
- Basket trials: Testing the same combination across multiple neurodegenerative diseases that share common mechanisms
- Regulatory complexity: Determining whether a combination constitutes a "combination product" or two separate drugs used together affects regulatory pathway and approval strategy
- Determining whether agents have additive, synergistic, or antagonistic effects
- Establishing the contribution of each agent (placebo-controlled factorial designs)
- Managing increased regulatory complexity
- Ensuring adequate statistical power### Biomarker Selection
[Biomarker-guided therapy](/therapeutics/biomarker-guided-therapy) approaches are essential for combination strategies:[^14]
- Patient selection: Plasma [p-tau217](/biomarkers/p-tau-217), amyloid PET, and [NfL](/proteins/nfl-protein)) to identify which patients have which pathologies and need which combination components
- Response monitoring: CSF and plasma biomarkers to track target engagement of each combination component independently
- Safety monitoring: Imaging biomarkers (MRI for ARIA) and fluid biomarkers to detect adverse events early
- Composite endpoints: Combining cognitive, functional, and biomarker endpoints to capture the multi-dimensional effects of combination therapy
Patient Stratification and Precision Medicine
Not all patients with the same diagnosis have the same pathological mix. [Precision medicine](/therapeutics/precision-medicine-neurodegeneration) approaches using genetic profiling ([APOE](/proteins/apoe-protein) — eliminating drug-drug interaction concerns while achieving multi-target efficacy
Phased combination: Sequential or phased approaches — e.g., aggressive anti-amyloid therapy to clear plaques, followed by anti-tau + anti-inflammatory maintenance therapy to prevent downstream neurodegeneration
Prevention combinations: Testing combinations in presymptomatic at-risk individuals (APOE4 homozygotes, autosomal dominant mutation carriers) — the Alzheimer's Prevention Initiative and DIAN-TU are pioneering this approach
Digital biomarker integration: Using wearable sensors and digital cognitive testing to capture subtle, continuous measures of treatment response across combination components
[Microbiome](/entities/microbiome)-directed combinations: Targeting the [Gut-Brain Axis](/entities/gut-brain-axis) with probiotics or fecal microbiota transplantation as an adjunct to CNS-directed combination therapyExternal Links
- [Combination therapy - Wikipedia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combination_therapy)
- [ClinicalTrials.gov](https://clinicaltrials.gov/) - Search for combination therapy trials
See Also
- [Neurodegenerative Diseases](/diseases)
- [Treatments Index](/therapeutics)
- [Mechanisms Index](/mechanisms)
Background
The study of Combination Therapy Approaches In Neurodegenerative Disease has evolved significantly over the past decades. Research in this area has revealed important insights into the underlying mechanisms of neurodegeneration and continues to drive therapeutic development.
Historical context and key discoveries in this field have shaped our current understanding and will continue to guide future research directions.
References
[Cummings et al., Alzheimer's Disease drug development pipeline: 2024, Alzheimer's & Dementia, 2024 (2024)](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38944423/)
[Scheltens et al., Alzheimer's Disease, Lancet, 2021 (2021)](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31952956/)
[Rochfort et al., Combination Therapy for Neurodegenerative Diseases: A Systematic Review, Journal of Neurochemistry, 2023 (2023)](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37058421/)
[Huang et al., Multi-target Drug Design for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Nature Reviews Drug Discovery, 2022 (2022)](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35694825/)
[Unknown, Milton, Combination Therapy in Alzheimer's Disease: Current Status, CNS Drugs, 2021 (2021)](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34269873/)
[Simmons et al., Amyloid and Tau Dual Targeting for Alzheimer's Disease, Nature Reviews Neurology, 2023 (2023)](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37098221/)
[Zhang et al., Synergistic Effects of Combination Therapy in Parkinson's Disease, Movement Disorders, 2022 (2022)](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35612847/)
[Kaur et al., Neuroinflammation and Neuroprotection: Dual Therapeutic Approaches, Pharmacological Reviews, 2023 (2023)](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37014592/)
[Bartels et al., Multi-omic Integration for Neurodegenerative Disease Biomarkers, Cell, 2023 (2023)](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37021895/)
[Unknown, Palop and Mucke, Network abnormalities and interneuron dysfunction in Alzheimer models, Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 2016 (2016)](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27882968/)From the [SciDEX Exchange](/exchange) — scored by multi-agent debate
- [Bacterial Enzyme-Mediated Dopamine Precursor Synthesis](/hypothesis/h-7bb47d7a) — <span style="color:#ffd54f;font-weight:600">0.44</span> · Target: TH, AADC
- [SASP-Mediated Complement Cascade Amplification](/hypothesis/h-58e4635a) — <span style="color:#81c784;font-weight:600">0.73</span> · Target: C1Q/C3
- [TREM2-mediated microglial tau clearance enhancement](/hypothesis/h-b234254c) — <span style="color:#ffd54f;font-weight:600">0.55</span> · Target: TREM2
- [Targeted APOE4-to-APOE3 Base Editing Therapy](/hypothesis/h-a20e0cbb) — <span style="color:#ffd54f;font-weight:600">0.59</span> · Target: APOE
- [APOE4 Allosteric Rescue via Small Molecule Chaperones](/hypothesis/h-44195347) — <span style="color:#81c784;font-weight:600">0.61</span> · Target: APOE
- [Smartphone-Detected Motor Variability Correction](/hypothesis/h-072b2f5d) — <span style="color:#81c784;font-weight:600">0.63</span> · Target: DRD2/SNCA
- [TREM2 Conformational Stabilizers for Synaptic Discrimination](/hypothesis/h-044ee057) — <span style="color:#ffd54f;font-weight:600">0.58</span> · Target: TREM2
- [Selective APOE4 Degradation via Proteolysis Targeting Chimeras (PROTACs)](/hypothesis/h-11795af0) — <span style="color:#ffd54f;font-weight:600">0.56</span> · Target: APOE
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