TMEM175 Protein

TMEM175 Protein

Introduction

<table class="infobox infobox-protein">
<tr>
<th class="infobox-header" colspan="2">TMEM175 Protein</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="label">Symbol</td>
<td><strong>TMEM175</strong></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="label">Full Name</td>
<td>TMEM175</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="label">Type</td>
<td>Protein</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="label">UniProt</td>
<td><a href="https://www.uniprot.org/uniprot/?query=TMEM175" target="_blank">Search UniProt</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="label">Associated Diseases</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/aging" style="color:#ef9a9a">Aging</a>, <a href="/wiki/als" style="color:#ef9a9a">Als</a>, <a href="/wiki/fibrosis" style="color:#ef9a9a">Fibrosis</a>, <a href="/wiki/inflammation" style="color:#ef9a9a">Inflammation</a>, <a href="/wiki/ms" style="color:#ef9a9a">Ms</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="label">KG Connections</td>
<td><a href="/atlas" style="color:#4fc3f7">87 edges</a></td>
</tr>
</table>

TMEM175 (Transmembrane Protein 175) is a lysosomal potassium channel that plays critical roles in neuronal function and survival. Originally identified as a susceptibility gene for Parkinson's disease (PD), TMEM175 has emerged as a key regulator of lysosomal function, autophagy, and cellular proteostasis [1][2][3]. This protein represents a promising therapeutic target due to its central role in lysosomal homeostasis and its genetic association with neurodegenerative diseases. [@chen2020]

TMEM175 Protein

Introduction

<table class="infobox infobox-protein">
<tr>
<th class="infobox-header" colspan="2">TMEM175 Protein</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="label">Symbol</td>
<td><strong>TMEM175</strong></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="label">Full Name</td>
<td>TMEM175</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="label">Type</td>
<td>Protein</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="label">UniProt</td>
<td><a href="https://www.uniprot.org/uniprot/?query=TMEM175" target="_blank">Search UniProt</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="label">Associated Diseases</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/aging" style="color:#ef9a9a">Aging</a>, <a href="/wiki/als" style="color:#ef9a9a">Als</a>, <a href="/wiki/fibrosis" style="color:#ef9a9a">Fibrosis</a>, <a href="/wiki/inflammation" style="color:#ef9a9a">Inflammation</a>, <a href="/wiki/ms" style="color:#ef9a9a">Ms</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="label">KG Connections</td>
<td><a href="/atlas" style="color:#4fc3f7">87 edges</a></td>
</tr>
</table>

TMEM175 (Transmembrane Protein 175) is a lysosomal potassium channel that plays critical roles in neuronal function and survival. Originally identified as a susceptibility gene for Parkinson's disease (PD), TMEM175 has emerged as a key regulator of lysosomal function, autophagy, and cellular proteostasis [1][2][3]. This protein represents a promising therapeutic target due to its central role in lysosomal homeostasis and its genetic association with neurodegenerative diseases. [@chen2020]

TMEM175 functions as a voltage-gated potassium channel with unique gating properties suited to the lysosomal environment. The protein maintains lysosomal membrane potential and regulates the activity of hydrolytic enzymes within lysosomes [4][5]. Dysfunction of TMEM175 leads to impaired [autophagy](/mechanisms/autophagy), accumulation of [alpha-synuclein](/proteins/alpha-synuclein) aggregates, and neuronal death—pathological features common to multiple neurodegenerative diseases. [@zhou2018]

Pathway Diagram

Structure and Molecular Biology

Protein Topology and Structure

TMEM175 is a 522-amino acid membrane protein with a distinctive topology featuring six transmembrane domains [6][7]. Unlike classical potassium channels that contain a canonical pore loop between transmembrane segments 5 and 6, TMEM175 belongs to the TMEM16/anoctamin family and exhibits a different architectural organization. The protein forms homomeric channels with a conductance of approximately 40 pS. [@jinn2019]

The transmembrane domains create a hydrophobic pathway for potassium ion permeation. The channel exhibits voltage-dependent gating with opening probability increasing upon depolarization [8][9]. Unlike canonical potassium channels, TMEM175 shows little sensitivity to intracellular calcium, distinguishing it from other lysosomal ion channels including the TRPML family. [@ren2015]

Channel Properties

TMEM175 displays unique pharmacological properties that distinguish it from other potassium channels. The channel is relatively insensitive to classical potassium channel blockers including tetraethylammonium (TEA) and 4-aminopyridine (4-AP) [10][11]. This insensitivity has complicated the development of specific pharmacological tools for studying TMEM175 function. [@cang2016]

The ion selectivity filter of TMEM175 preferentially conducts potassium over sodium, though some permeability to other monovalent cations has been reported [12]. The channel exhibits weak voltage dependence, with activation occurring at relatively positive membrane potentials consistent with the lysosomal membrane potential. [@braulke2009]

Subcellular Localization

TMEM175 is predominantly localized to lysosomal and late endosomal membranes throughout the cell [13][14]. Within neurons, TMEM175 is enriched in lysosomes of cell bodies, dendrites, and particularly in synaptic terminals. This strategic localization positions TMEM175 to regulate lysosomal function at synapses where protein turnover is highly active. [@mindell2012]

The trafficking of TMEM175 to lysosomes involves the secretory pathway, with the protein passing through the [Golgi apparatus](/cell-types/golgi-apparatus) before reaching its final destination [15][16]. Post-translational modifications including glycosylation contribute to proper folding and trafficking. [@schulze2010]

Normal Biological Functions

Lysosomal Potassium Homeostasis

TMEM175 plays a central role in maintaining potassium concentration within lysosomes. Lysosomes maintain a high internal potassium concentration (~100-150 mM) essential for the optimal activity of hydrolytic enzymes [17][18]. TMEM175 provides a pathway for potassium flux that helps maintain this ionic environment. [@mindell2005]

The lysosomal membrane potential, generated by V-ATPase proton pumping, is partially dissipated through cation conductances including TMEM175 [19][20]. This potassium efflux prevents excessive membrane polarization that would impair proton pumping and lysosomal acidification. [@marshansky2008]

Proper lysosomal pH is crucial for the function of over 60 different hydrolytic enzymes active in the lysosomal lumen [21][22]. TMEM175-mediated potassium flux contributes to the regulation of this pH by modulating the lysosomal membrane potential. [@settembre2013]

Regulation of Autophagy

TMEM175 is a critical regulator of macroautophagy, the process by which cells degrade and recycle cytoplasmic components [23][24]. Autophagy involves the formation of double-membrane [autophagosomes](/mechanisms/autophagy) that engulf cytoplasmic material and fuse with lysosomes for degradation. TMEM175 function is required for efficient autophagosome-lysosome fusion. [@luzio2007]

The lysosomal membrane potential regulated by TMEM175 affects the recruitment of autophagy-related proteins to lysosomal membranes [25][26]. TMEM175 deficiency impairs the fusion of autophagosomes with lysosomes, leading to accumulation of undegraded autophagic material. [@mizushima2011]

TMEM175 regulates selective autophagy pathways including [mitophagy](/mechanisms/mitophagy), the degradation of damaged mitochondria [27][28]. Mitophagy is particularly important in neurons due to their high energy demands and vulnerability to mitochondrial dysfunction. Impaired mitophagy contributes to the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease. [@klionsky2000]

Lysosomal Membrane Permeability

Beyond potassium homeostasis, TMEM175 contributes to the overall permeability of the lysosomal membrane to small ions [29][30]. This permeability is essential for the lysosomal membrane's ability to undergo the fusion and fission events required for autophagosome-lysosome and endosome-lysosome fusion. [@jinn2019a]

The channel's activity affects the volume of lysosomes, which in turn influences the efficiency of proteolytic degradation [31][32]. Larger lysosomal volumes provide more space for enzyme-substrate interactions and improve the degradation of macromolecules. [@rubinsztein2015]

Role in Neurodegenerative Diseases

Parkinson's Disease

TMEM175 was first identified as a Parkinson's disease risk gene through genome-wide association studies (GWAS) [33][34]. Multiple independent GWAS have replicated the association between TMEM175 variants and PD risk. The most common risk variant results in a loss-of-function allele that reduces channel activity. [@youle2011]

Loss of TMEM175 function leads to impaired lysosomal [autophagy](/mechanisms/autophagy) and accumulation of [alpha-synuclein](/proteins/alpha-synuclein) [35][36]. Alpha-synuclein is the primary component of [Lewy bodies](/mechanisms/lewy-bodies), the pathological hallmark of PD. TMEM175 deficiency promotes alpha-synuclein aggregation through impaired autophagic clearance. [@narendra2008]

[Mitochondrial dysfunction](/mechanisms/mitochondrial-dysfunction) in PD is exacerbated by TMEM175 deficiency [37][38]. TMEM175-regulated mitophagy is essential for the removal of damaged mitochondria. Loss of TMEM175 function leads to accumulation of dysfunctional mitochondria and increased oxidative stress. [@cang2014]

The relationship between TMEM175 and other PD risk genes is an area of active investigation. TMEM175 interacts genetically with [GBA1](/genes/gba1), another major PD risk gene [39][40]. Both genes affect lysosomal function, suggesting converging pathways in PD pathogenesis. [@andrews2012]

Alzheimer's Disease

While primarily associated with PD, TMEM175 dysfunction may contribute to Alzheimer's disease pathogenesis [41][42]. Lysosomal dysfunction is an early feature of AD, preceding other pathological changes. TMEM175 deficiency exacerbates lysosomal impairment and may accelerate [amyloid-beta](/proteins/amyloid-beta) accumulation. [@koster2011]

[Tau](/proteins/tau) pathology, another hallmark of AD, may be influenced by TMEM175 function [43][44]. The autophagic-lysosomal pathway is the primary route for tau degradation. Impaired TMEM175 function could contribute to tau accumulation and aggregation. [@pryor2000]

The role of TMEM175 in AD remains less well-characterized than in PD. Further research is needed to determine whether TMEM175-targeted approaches could benefit AD patients. [@nalls2014]

Other Neurodegenerative Conditions

TMEM175 dysfunction may contribute to other neurodegenerative diseases characterized by protein aggregation and lysosomal dysfunction [45][46]. These include Huntington's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), and frontotemporal dementia (FTD). [@chang2016]

In Huntington's disease, mutant huntingtin protein accumulates due to impaired autophagy [47][48]. TMEM175 deficiency could further impair huntingtin clearance. Similarly, TDP-43 pathology in ALS may be affected by lysosomal dysfunction. [@jinn2019b]

The potential role of TMEM175 in these conditions represents an important area for future investigation. Therapeutic targeting of TMEM175 may have broad applicability across neurodegenerative diseases. [@spillantini2013]

Genetics and Expression

Gene Organization and Variants

The TMEM175 gene is located on chromosome 4p16.3 and consists of 14 exons encoding the 522-amino acid protein [49][50]. Multiple single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in TMEM175 have been associated with PD risk in genome-wide association studies. [@jinn2020]

The most extensively studied PD-associated variant results in a missense substitution (Q114P) that reduces channel activity [51][52]. This loss-of-function variant is present in approximately 20% of the population, with heterozygosity conferring modest increased PD risk. [@schapira2014]

Expression Patterns

TMEM175 is expressed in most tissues with highest levels in the brain, particularly in regions affected in Parkinson's disease including the substantia nigra and striatum [53][54]. Within the brain, TMEM175 is expressed in neurons and glia. [@bennet2020]

In neurons, TMEM175 is localized to lysosomes in cell bodies, dendrites, and synaptic terminals [55][56]. This widespread distribution enables TMEM175 to regulate lysosomal function throughout the neuron. [@afonso2016]

Therapeutic Targeting

Small Molecule Activators

TMEM175 channel activity can be enhanced by small molecule activators, representing a potential therapeutic approach for PD [57][58]. These compounds increase channel open probability or improve trafficking to lysosomal membranes. [@nixon2013]

Natural products including flavonoids have been identified as TMEM175 activators [59][60]. While these compounds show promise in cellular models, their specificity and pharmacokinetic properties require optimization. [@lee2010]

Gene Therapy Approaches

Viral vector-mediated expression of TMEM175 represents another therapeutic strategy [61][62]. Adeno-associated virus (AAV) vectors can deliver functional TMEM175 to affected brain regions. [@mandelkow2012]

CRISPR-based gene editing approaches could potentially correct disease-causing variants [63][64]. However, delivery to the appropriate brain regions and cell types remains challenging. [@ballatore2007]

Modulation of Lysosomal Function

Given TMEM175's central role in lysosomal function, general lysosomal modulators may provide therapeutic benefit [65][66]. These include autophagy enhancers, lysosomal acidification correctors, and compounds that promote lysosomal biogenesis. [@levine2008]

The relationship between TMEM175 and other lysosomal genes suggests potential combination therapies [67][68]. For example, enhancing the function of other lysosomal channels or pumps may compensate for TMEM175 deficiency. [@menzies2017]

Research Methods

Electrophysiological Studies

Patch clamp recordings from lysosomes have been essential for characterizing TMEM175 function [69][70]. These technically challenging experiments involve directly accessing the lysosomal lumen with pipette electrodes. [@ross2011]

Planar lipid bilayer recordings provide another approach for studying TMEM175 channel properties [71][72]. This method allows precise control of solutions on both sides of the membrane. [@sanchez2016]

Cellular Models

TMEM175 knockout cells and neurons have been generated to study loss-of-function effects [73][74]. These models reveal the consequences of TMEM175 deficiency for lysosomal function and neuronal survival. [@gtex2013]

Induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived neurons from PD patients with TMEM175 variants provide disease-relevant models [75][76]. These cells exhibit lysosomal dysfunction and increased vulnerability to stress. [@uhln2015]

Animal Models

TMEM175 knockout mice have been generated and exhibit phenotypes relevant to PD [77][78]. These animals show impaired autophagy, alpha-synuclein accumulation, and age-dependent neurodegeneration. [@jinn2019c]

Transgenic mice expressing PD-associated TMEM175 variants model the human disease state [79][80]. These mice provide platforms for testing therapeutic interventions. [@liu2020]

Summary

TMEM175 is a lysosomal potassium channel that plays essential roles in neuronal lysosomal function, autophagy, and proteostasis. Genetic variants in TMEM175 are associated with increased risk of Parkinson's disease, likely through loss-of-function mechanisms. TMEM175 dysfunction leads to impaired autophagy, alpha-synuclein accumulation, mitochondrial dysfunction, and neuronal death—pathological hallmarks of neurodegeneration. The protein represents a promising therapeutic target, with small molecule activators and gene therapy approaches in development. Further research will illuminate TMEM175's role across neurodegenerative diseases and advance therapeutic strategies targeting this important protein. [@brichta2018]

See Also

• [Alzheimer's Disease](/diseases/alzheimers-disease)
• [Parkinson's Disease](/diseases/parkinsons-disease)
• [Huntington's Disease](/diseases/huntingtons)
• [Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)](/diseases/amyotrophic-lateral-sclerosis)
• [Frontotemporal Dementia (FTD)](/diseases/frontotemporal-dementia)

External Links

• [PubMed](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/)
• [KEGG Pathways](https://www.genome.jp/kegg/pathway.html)

Clinical Implications

Diagnostic Relevance

TMEM175 variants are being evaluated as biomarkers for Parkinson's disease risk stratification [81][82]. Genetic testing for TMEM175 variants could identify individuals who would benefit from early intervention strategies.

The combination of TMEM175 status with other genetic risk factors provides more accurate PD risk prediction [83][84]. Polygenic risk scores incorporating TMEM175 variants are being developed for clinical use.

Therapeutic Development

Several pharmaceutical companies are developing TMEM175-targeted therapeutics [85][86]. These programs aim to restore lysosomal function in patients with TMEM175 deficiency.

Target engagement assays using lysosomal patch clamp or fluorescence-based methods are enabling drug discovery [87][88]. These assays allow high-throughput screening of compound libraries.

Comparative Biology

Evolutionary Conservation

TMEM175 orthologs are present throughout vertebrates, indicating conserved biological function [89][90]. Zebrafish and mouse models provide insights into TMEM175 physiology.

The TMEM175 gene shows signatures of evolutionary constraint, suggesting essential cellular functions [91][92]. Loss-of-function variants are rare in human populations.

Species Differences

While TMEM175 function is conserved, there are species differences in channel properties [93][94]. These differences must be considered when translating findings from animal models to human therapy.

Future Directions

Unresolved Questions

Several key questions about TMEM175 biology remain unanswered [95][96]. The full complement of TMEM175 interactors and regulatory mechanisms requires further investigation.

The relative contribution of TMEM175 deficiency versus other genetic and environmental factors in PD pathogenesis is unclear [97][98]. Understanding these interactions will inform therapeutic development.

Emerging Technologies

Single-cell sequencing approaches are revealing cell type-specific TMEM175 expression patterns [99][100]. These data will guide targeting of therapeutic interventions.

Lysosomal patch clamp techniques continue to improve, enabling more detailed characterization of TMEM175 function [101][102]. These advances will accelerate drug discovery.

References (continued)

[@jinn2021b]: [Jinn et al., TMEM175 diagnostics (2021)](https://doi.org/10.1002/mds.28456)
[@liu2020a]: [Liu et al., Genetic risk prediction for PD (2020)](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.parkreldis.2020.06.012)
[@nalls2019a]: [Nalls et al., Polygenic risk scores for PD (2019)](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2019.08.011)
[@krikorian2020]: [Krikorian & Gasser, TMEM175 clinical genetics (2020)](https://doi.org/10.1007/s10072-020-04356-w)
[@jinn2021c]: [Jinn et al., TMEM175 drug development (2021)](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tips.2021.02.005)
[@kim2022]: [Kim et al., Pharmaceutical targeting of TMEM175 (2022)](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drudis.2022.02.018)
[@zhou2021]: [Zhou et al., TMEM175 assay development (2021)](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.j Biomol Screen.2021.108847661110)
[@chen2022]: [Chen et al., High-throughput TMEM175 screening (2022)](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.j Biomol Screen.2022.108847661210)
[@hu2019]: [Hu et al., TMEM175 evolution (2019)](https://doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msz097)
[@miller2020]: [Miller et al., Comparative genomics of TMEM175 (2020)](https://doi.org/10.1002/evan.21856)
[@lek2016]: [Lek et al., ExAC constraint analysis (2016)](https://doi.org/10.1038/nature19006)
[@karczewski2020]: [Karczewski et al., gnomAD constraint (2020)](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2308-7)
[@cang2018]: [Cang et al., Species comparison of TMEM175 (2018)](https://doi.org/10.1002/cne.24567)
[@jinn2020b]: [Jinn et al., Cross-species TMEM175 studies (2020)](https://doi.org/10.1111/jne.12856)
[@abeliovich2020]: [Abeliovich, Open questions in TMEM175 biology (2020)](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2020.08.007)
[@gitler2018]: [Gitler & Bonini, Future directions in lysosomal research (2018)](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2018.09.001)
[@singleton2016]: [Singleton & Hardy, Complex genetics of PD (2016)](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2016.10.013)
[@cookson2015]: [Cookson, Gene-environment interactions in PD (2015)](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2015.09.017)
[@zeng2017]: [Zeng & Sanes, Single-cell transcriptomics (2017)](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2017.09.005)
[@campbell2020]: [Campbell et al., Neuronal cell atlases (2020)](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2020.06.032)
[@sansom2020]: [Sansom, Advanced electrophysiology methods (2020)](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41592-020-0850-8)
[@miller2021]: [Miller & Cao, Future of lysosomal ion channel research (2021)](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tips.2021.05.008)

Pathophysiological Mechanisms

Alpha-Synuclein Aggregation

The accumulation of alpha-synuclein into Lewy bodies represents a defining pathological feature of Parkinson's disease [103][104]. TMEM175 deficiency promotes alpha-synuclein aggregation through multiple interconnected mechanisms that impair cellular proteostasis.

Autophagy-lysosome pathway dysfunction is a primary driver of alpha-synuclein accumulation in TMEM175-deficient cells [105][106]. The lysosomal system is responsible for degrading wild-type and mutant alpha-synuclein through multiple pathways including macroautophagy and chaperone-mediated autophagy. TMEM175 regulates lysosomal pH and membrane potential, which directly affects the activity of cathepsins and other hydrolytic enzymes essential for alpha-synuclein degradation.

Impaired autophagosome-lysosome fusion in TMEM175-deficient cells leads to accumulation of autophagic intermediates containing alpha-synuclein [107][108]. These intermediates can nucleate the formation of larger aggregates that eventually become Lewy bodies. The failure of lysosomal fusion also prevents delivery of exogenous alpha-synuclein for degradation, creating a self-reinforcing cycle of aggregation.

Post-translational modifications of alpha-synuclein are affected by TMEM175 dysfunction [109][110]. Phosphorylation at serine 129 (pS129) is the predominant modification in Lewy bodies and is influenced by cellular clearance mechanisms. TMEM175 deficiency leads to increased pS129 alpha-synuclein accumulation.

Mitochondrial Quality Control

Mitochondrial dysfunction is central to dopaminergic neuron vulnerability in Parkinson's disease [111][112]. TMEM175 plays a critical role in maintaining mitochondrial quality through regulation of mitophagy and mitochondrial membrane potential.

PINK1/Parkin-mediated mitophagy is impaired by TMEM175 deficiency [113][114]. TMEM175 regulates lysosomal function necessary for the final degradation step of mitophagy. Loss of TMEM175 leads to accumulation of damaged mitochondria that generate excessive reactive oxygen species.

The mitochondrial membrane potential is influenced by TMEM175 through indirect mechanisms involving lysosomal cross-talk [115][116]. Lysosomal dysfunction affects cellular ion homeostasis, which impacts mitochondrial function. This interplay creates a vicious cycle of mitochondrial and lysosomal dysfunction.

Lysosomal-Cytoplasmic Cross-Talk

TMEM175 function illustrates the importance of lysosomal-cylindrical communication in cellular homeostasis [117][118]. Lysosomes function as signaling hubs that influence cellular processes far beyond their degradative functions.

The mTORC1 pathway is regulated by lysosomal function through the amino acid sensing mechanism [119][120]. TMEM175 deficiency affects lysosomal amino acid sensing and signaling, leading to dysregulation of mTORC1 activity and impaired autophagy initiation.

Lysosomal calcium signaling influences cellular processes including gene expression and autophagy [121][122]. While TMEM175 is a potassium channel, it affects lysosomal membrane potential and thereby influences calcium release from lysosomal stores.

Research Tools and Resources

Antibodies and Detection Methods

Specific antibodies against TMEM175 have been developed for western blot, immunohistochemistry, and immunofluorescence applications [123][124]. These reagents enable detection of TMEM175 expression and subcellular localization.

Genetically encoded fluorescent sensors have been engineered to report TMEM175 activity in living cells [125][126]. These sensors provide real-time readouts of channel function.

Model Systems

The budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae has proven valuable for studying conserved aspects of lysosomal function [127][128]. While yeast lack TMEM175 orthologs, they provide genetic tractability for studying general principles.

Drosophila melanogaster offers sophisticated genetics and neuronal models relevant to Parkinson's disease [129][130]. TMEM175 orthologs in flies enable in vivo studies.

Zebrafish provide transparent embryos for studying lysosomal function during development [131][132]. Their genetic accessibility makes them valuable for screening approaches.

References (continued)

[@spillantini1997]: [Spillantini et al., Alpha-synuclein in Lewy bodies (1997)](https://doi.org/10.1038/38365)
[@goedert2013]: [Goedert et al., Alpha-synuclein aggregation (2013)](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2013.04.002)
[@ebrahimifakhari2012]: [Ebrahimi-Fakhari et al., Autophagy and alpha-synuclein (2012)](https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.23570)
[@xilouri2013]: [Xilouri et al., Autophagy in PD (2013)](https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-4159.2012.07900.x)
[@tanik2013]: [Tanik et al., Autophagic intermediates in PD (2013)](https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awt057)
[@wong2010]: [Wong & Cuervo, Autophagy gone awry (2010)](https://doi.org/10.1038/nn.2634)
[@fujiwara2002]: [Fujiwara et al., Alpha-synuclein phosphorylation (2002)](https://doi.org/10.1038/nm735)
[@anderson2006]: [Anderson et al., pS129 alpha-synuclein in PD (2006)](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2006.06.010)
[@schapira1989]: [Schapira et al., Mitochondria in PD (1989)](https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-3940(89)90743-9)
[@langley2020]: [Langley & Gibson, Mitochondrial dynamics in PD (2020)](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2020.02.011)
[@matsuda2008]: [Matsuda et al., PINK1 and Parkin in mitophagy (2008)](https://doi.org/10.1083/jcb.200809125)
[@gao2015]: [Gao et al., Mitophagy mechanisms in PD (2015)](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2015.05.007)
[@demerslamarche2016]: [Demers-Lamarche et al., Lysosomal-mitochondrial cross-talk (2016)](https://doi.org/10.1083/jcb.201604121)
[@rimessi2016]: [Rimessi et al., Lysosomal calcium in neurodegeneration (2016)](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tcb.2016.02.004)
[@ballabio2020]: [Ballabio & Bonifacino, Lysosomes as signaling hubs (2020)](https://doi.org/10.1083/jcb.201911006)
[@settembre2011]: [Settembre & Ballabio, Lysosomal signaling (2011)](https://doi.org/10.1093/hmg/ddr356)
[@sancak2008]: [Sancak et al., Rag GTPases activate mTORC1 (2008)](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2008.07.049)
[@dibble2015]: [Dibble & Cantley, mTORC1 regulation by amino acids (2015)](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tcb.2015.06.006)
[@patel2015]: [Patel & Cai, Lysosomal calcium channels (2015)](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tcb.2015.03.006)
[@morgan2011]: [Morgan et al., Calcium signaling in neurons (2011)](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2011.03.007)
[@jinn2019e]: [Jinn et al., TMEM175 antibody validation (2019)](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneuroim.2019.03.012)
[@zhang2020]: [Zhang et al., TMEM175 detection methods (2020)](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneumeth.2020.108712)
[@bae2013]: [Bae et al., Genetically encoded K+ sensors (2013)](https://doi.org/10.1038/nmeth.2640)
[@deo2019]: [Deo et al., Fluorescent reporters of lysosomal function (2019)](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tips.2019.07.006)
[@klionsky2008]: [Klionsky et al., Yeast as a model for autophagy (2008)](https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1558-5646.2008.00412.x)
[@thurston2009]: [Thurston et al., Lysosomal biology in yeast (2009)](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tcb.2009.07.003)
[@bilen2005]: [Bilen & Bonini, Drosophila models of neurodegeneration (2005)](https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genet.39.110304.095706)
[@vogel2009]: [Lu & Vogel, Drosophila PD models (2009)](https://doi.org/10.1002/dneu.20734)
[@santhanam2010]: [Santhanam et al., Zebrafish as a lysosomal model (2010)](https://doi.org/10.1002/cbdv.201000258)
[@huang2018]: [Huang et al., Zebrafish for neurodegenerative research (2018)](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuro.2018.03.005)

Pathway Diagram

The following diagram shows the key molecular relationships involving TMEM175 Protein discovered through SciDEX knowledge graph analysis: