Hsp70/Hsp90 Chaperone Pathway in Parkinson's Disease

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Hsp70/Hsp90 Chaperone Pathway in Parkinson's Disease

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Hsp70/Hsp90 Chaperone Pathway in Parkinson's Disease

Overview

The Hsp70/Hsp90 molecular chaperone system represents a critical component of the cellular proteostasis network that is particularly relevant to Parkinson's Disease (PD) pathogenesis. These heat shock proteins coordinate protein folding, assembly of protein complexes, and targeting of misfolded proteins for degradation, thereby protecting neurons from the toxic effects of [alpha-synuclein](/proteins/alpha-synuclein) aggregation and other proteostatic stressors central to PD pathophysiology[@chaperone2020].

In PD, the chaperone system faces extraordinary challenges due to the progressive accumulation of misfolded [alpha-synuclein](/proteins/alpha-synuclein), mitochondrial proteins damaged by oxidative stress, and endoplasmic reticulum stress resulting from cellular dysfunction. Understanding how Hsp70 and Hsp90 function—and how they fail—in dopaminergic neurons provides critical insights into disease mechanisms and therapeutic opportunities[@molecular2022].

The Hsp70/Hsp90 Chaperone Machinery

HSP70 Family Members in the Brain

The HSP70 family encompasses multiple isoforms with distinct cellular localizations and functions in the brain:

...

Hsp70/Hsp90 Chaperone Pathway in Parkinson's Disease

Overview

The Hsp70/Hsp90 molecular chaperone system represents a critical component of the cellular proteostasis network that is particularly relevant to Parkinson's Disease (PD) pathogenesis. These heat shock proteins coordinate protein folding, assembly of protein complexes, and targeting of misfolded proteins for degradation, thereby protecting neurons from the toxic effects of [alpha-synuclein](/proteins/alpha-synuclein) aggregation and other proteostatic stressors central to PD pathophysiology[@chaperone2020].

In PD, the chaperone system faces extraordinary challenges due to the progressive accumulation of misfolded [alpha-synuclein](/proteins/alpha-synuclein), mitochondrial proteins damaged by oxidative stress, and endoplasmic reticulum stress resulting from cellular dysfunction. Understanding how Hsp70 and Hsp90 function—and how they fail—in dopaminergic neurons provides critical insights into disease mechanisms and therapeutic opportunities[@molecular2022].

The Hsp70/Hsp90 Chaperone Machinery

HSP70 Family Members in the Brain

The HSP70 family encompasses multiple isoforms with distinct cellular localizations and functions in the brain:

HSPA1A (Hsp70): Stress-inducible isoform highly upregulated under proteotoxic stress conditions
HSPA8 (Hsc70): Constitutively expressed "constitutive" Hsp70 involved in protein folding and autophagy
HSPA5 (GRP78/BiP): ER-resident chaperone critical for unfolded protein response regulation
HSPA9 (mortalin/GRP75): Mitochondrial Hsp70 involved in protein import and mitochondrial quality control

HSP90 isoforms in Neurons

HSP90AA1: Cytosolic, stress-inducible isoform
HSP90AB1: Cytosolic, constitutively expressed "β" isoform
HSP90B1 (GRP94): ER-resident isoform
HSP90 (mitochondrial): Distinct mitochondrial isoform involved in protein import

Alpha-Synuclein Aggregation Suppression

Direct Chaperone Interactions

Hsp70 and Hsp90 directly interact with [alpha-synuclein](/proteins/alpha-synuclein) at multiple stages of the aggregation process:

Nucleation Phase Suppression:

Hsp70 binds to soluble [alpha-synuclein](/proteins/alpha-synuclein) monomers, preventing conformational transitions that initiate aggregation
The J-domain protein DNAJB1 specifically recognizes oligomeric [alpha-synuclein](/proteins/alpha-synuclein) intermediates through multivalent interactions, targeting the Hsp70 machinery to toxic oligomers[@hsp2019]

Fibril Disassembly:

The Hsp70 disaggregation machinery (Hsc70-DNAJB1-HSP110) can reverse [alpha-synuclein](/proteins/alpha-synuclein) amyloid fibrils back to soluble monomers through a mechanism where monomer units are removed directly from fibril ends[@hsp2019]
This activity demonstrates that amyloid fibrils are not irreversible endpoints but can be disassembled by the endogenous chaperone system

Co-chaperone Coordination

The specificity and activity of Hsp70 toward [alpha-synuclein](/proteins/alpha-synuclein) is regulated by co-chaperones:

J-domain proteins (DNAJA1, DNAJB1, DNAJC12): Deliver misfolded substrates to Hsp70; DNAJB1 shows particular specificity for [alpha-synuclein](/proteins/alpha-synuclein) oligomers
NEFs (HSP110, BAG1-6): Regulate nucleotide exchange and substrate release kinetics
Hsp40/Hsp70 complexes: Form the primary machinery for [alpha-synuclein](/proteins/alpha-synuclein) clearance in neurons

Mermaid diagram (expand to render)

ER Stress and the Unfolded Protein Response

ER Chaperones in PD

The endoplasmic reticulum represents a critical site of proteostatic stress in PD dopaminergic neurons. Key ER chaperones include:

HSPA5 (GRP78/BiP): The master ER chaperone that regulates the [unfolded protein response](/mechanisms/er-stress-upr-parkinsons)
ERdj proteins (DNAJB9, DNAJC3): ER-resident J-domain proteins coordinating protein folding
Calnexin/Calreticulin: Calcium-dependent chaperones affected in PD

Upregulation in PD

ER stress activates the [unfolded protein response](/mechanisms/er-stress-upr-parkinsons) (UPR), which attempts to restore ER homeostasis through:

Attenuation of protein translation

Upregulation of ER chaperones including Hsp70 family members

Activation of ER-associated degradation (ERAD)

In PD, chronic ER stress leads to persistent UPR activation, ultimately triggering apoptotic pathways in dopaminergic neurons. The failure of adaptive UPR responses contributes to neurodegeneration[@stress2021].

Mitochondrial Protein Import and Quality Control

Mitochondrial Hsp70 (mtHsp70/mortalin)

The mitochondrial Hsp70 system, also known as mortalin (HSPA9), plays essential roles in PD:

Protein import: Facilitates translocation of nuclear-encoded mitochondrial proteins across the inner mitochondrial membrane
Mitochondrial protein folding: Assists in proper folding of imported proteins in the mitochondrial matrix
Quality control: Identifies and targeting misfolded mitochondrial proteins for degradation

PINK1/Parkin-Mitochondrial Quality Control

The [PINK1/Parkin mitophagy pathway](/mechanisms/pink1-parkin-mitophagy-pathway-parkinsons) intersects with the chaperone system:

Damaged mitochondria accumulate PINK1 on the outer membrane
Parkin recruitment triggers ubiquitination of mitochondrial proteins
The chaperone system participates in recognizing and processing damaged mitochondrial proteins for autophagic clearance

Mutations in PINK1 (PARK6) and PARKIN (PARK2) cause early-onset familial PD, highlighting the critical importance of mitochondrial quality control[@pink2021].

Mitochondrial Chaperone Dysfunction

In PD, mitochondrial chaperone function is compromised through:

Oxidative damage to Hsp70/Hsp90 proteins
Decreased expression of mitochondrial Hsp70
Impaired protein import leading to accumulation of misfolded mitochondrial proteins

The Proteostasis Network in PD

Network Components

The proteostasis network in neurons comprises interconnected systems:

| System | Key Components | Function in PD |
|--------|---------------|----------------|
| Molecular chaperones | Hsp70, Hsp90, sHsp | Protein folding, aggregation prevention |
| Ubiquitin-proteasome | 26S proteasome, E3 ligases | Targeted protein degradation |
| Autophagy-lysosomal | Macroautophagy, CMA | Bulk protein clearance |
| Chaperone-mediated autophagy | Hsc70, LAMP-2A | Selective protein turnover |

Chaperone Failure in PD Progression

The chaperone system becomes progressively overwhelmed in PD:

Early stage: Compensatory upregulation of chaperones attempts to handle increased [alpha-synuclein](/proteins/alpha-synuclein) load

Intermediate stage: Chaperone capacity is exceeded; toxic oligomers accumulate

Late stage: Chaperone system itself may be recruited into Lewy bodies, rendering it non-functional

This progression explains the relative preservation of neurons early in disease and the acceleration of pathology once compensatory mechanisms fail[@molecular2022].

Connections to Other PD Mechanisms

The chaperone system intersects with multiple PD-relevant pathways:

[LRRK2 pathway](/mechanisms/lrrk2-pathway-parkinsons): LRRK2 kinase activity affects chaperone function; G2019S mutation increases chaperone burden
[GBA pathway](/mechanisms/gba-lysosomal-pathway-parkinsons): Glucocerebrosidase deficiency impairs lysosomal function, increasing reliance on cytosolic chaperone clearance
[Mitochondrial dysfunction](/mechanisms/mitochondrial-dysfunction-parkinsons): Chaperones protect against mitochondrial protein damage
[Ubiquitin-proteasome system](/mechanisms/ubiquitin-proteasome-dysfunction-parkinsons): Chaperones target proteins for proteasomal degradation

Therapeutic Implications

Hsp70 Inducer Therapies

Pharmacological upregulation of Hsp70 represents a promising therapeutic strategy[@heat2024]:

Geldanamycin derivatives: Natural products that inhibit Hsp90 and induce Hsp70 expression
Synthetic Hsp70 inducers: Small molecules targeting HSF1 (heat shock factor 1) activation
Natural compounds: Curcumin, geranylgeranylacetone stimulate Hsp70 expression

HSP90 Inhibitors in PD

Hsp90 inhibitors paradoxically provide neuroprotection through dual mechanisms[@clinical2023]:

Destabilization of client proteins including mutant [LRRK2](/genes/lrrk2) and tau

Compensatory upregulation of Hsp70 and other protective chaperones

Chaperone-Based Combination Therapies

Emerging approaches target multiple components of the proteostasis network[@combination2023]:

Hsp70 + autophagy enhancers: Synergistic enhancement of protein clearance
Small molecule chaperones: Pharmacological chaperones that assist protein folding
Gene therapy: Viral delivery of chaperone genes to enhance neuronal protection

Synaptic Proteostasis and Neuroprotection

Hsp70 at the Synapse

The synapse represents a critical site of proteostatic challenge in PD[@synapse2023]:

High energy demand and protein turnover
Distance from soma limits chaperone access
Synaptic activity generates reactive oxygen species
Alpha-synuclein localizes to presynaptic terminals

Synaptic Vulnerability in PD

Synaptic dysfunction occurs early in PD:

Loss of synaptic proteins precedes neuron loss
Hsp70 protects against synuclein-induced synaptic damage
Mitochondrial chaperones maintain synaptic energy

Cell-Type Specific Chaperone Biology

Dopaminergic Neuron Vulnerabilities

Dopaminergic neurons have unique proteostatic challenges:

High metabolic demand with mitochondrial stress
Sustained pacemaking calcium influx
Neuromelanin accumulation with age
Long axonal projections requiring distant protein quality control

Astrocytic Chaperones

Astrocytes support neuronal proteostasis through[@astro2022]:

Secretion of Hsp70 and Hsp90
Support of extracellular chaperone pools
Clearance of extracellular alpha-synuclein
Cross-talk with neurons via chaperone signaling

Microglial Chaperone Responses

Microglial chaperones in PD:

Inflammatory activation alters chaperone expression
Hsp70 released as damage-associated molecular pattern (DAMP)
Extracellular Hsp70 can promote neuroinflammation
Modulation of microglial proteostasis as therapeutic target

HSF1 Activation as Therapeutic Strategy

Heat Shock Factor 1 Biology

HSF1 is the master transcriptional regulator of chaperone expression[@hsf2023]:

Trimerization and nuclear translocation under stress
Binding to heat shock elements (HSE) in chaperone gene promoters
Transcriptional activation of Hsp70, Hsp90, and co-chaperones
Negative regulation by Hsp70/Hsp90 complexes

Pharmacological HSF1 Activation

Strategies for HSF1 activation in PD:

Geldanamycin/17-AAG: Hsp90 inhibition releases HSF1
HSF1 agonists: Direct activation of HSF1 transcriptional activity
Geranylgeranylacetone: FDA-approved Hsp70 inducer
Natural compounds: Curcumin, sulforaphane activate HSF1

HSF1 in Dopaminergic Neurons

HSF1 activation in dopaminergic neurons:

Protects against MPTP and 6-OHDA toxicity
Reduces alpha-synuclein aggregation
Enhances mitochondrial function
Promotes autophagy-lysosomal pathway activity

DNAJ Co-chaperones in Alpha-Synuclein Pathology

The DNAJ Family

DNAJ (Hsp40) co-chaperones provide substrate specificity[@dna2022]:

DNAJA1 (Hsp40): Broad substrate recognition
DNAJB1: Strong preference for alpha-synuclein oligomers
DNAJC12: Neuron-specific expression
DNAJB6/B8: Anti-aggregation activity in neurons

DNAJB1 and Alpha-Synuclein

DNAJB1 shows remarkable specificity:

Recognizes oligomeric alpha-synuclein intermediates
Targets toxic species for Hsp70-mediated clearance
Prevents fibril propagation
Mutations in DNAJB6 linked to PD risk

Chaperone-Mediated Autophagy in PD

CMA Pathway Overview

CMA selectively degrades proteins with KFERQ motif[@cma2021]:

Recognition by Hsc70 (HSPA8)
LAMP-2A-mediated translocation into lysosome
Direct degradation in lysosomal lumen
Critical for alpha-synuclein turnover

CMA Dysfunction in PD

CMA is impaired in PD through multiple mechanisms:

LAMP-2A levels decrease with age
Alpha-synuclein mutations impair CMA recognition
Oxidative damage to CMA components
GBA mutations disrupt lysosomal function

Restoring CMA

Therapeutic approaches to restore CMA:

LAMP-2A overexpression in animal models
Pharmacological CMA activation
Combination with Hsp70 inducers
Gene therapy approaches

LRRK2 and Chaperone Interactions

LRRK2 Mutations and Proteostasis

The relationship between LRRK2 and chaperones is complex[@lrrk22020]:

G2019S mutation increases chaperone burden
LRRK2 kinase activity affects protein quality control
Chaperone levels correlate with LRRK2 toxicity
Hsp90 stabilizes mutant LRRK2

Therapeutic Implications

Targeting LRRK2-chaperone axis:

Hsp90 inhibitors reduce mutant LRRK2 levels
Hsp70 inducers may compensate for increased burden
Combination approaches target multiple pathways

GBA Mutations and Chaperone Dysfunction

GBA-PD Pathogenesis

GBA mutations are the most common genetic risk factor[@gba2021]:

Glucocerebrosidase deficiency impairs lysosomal function
Alpha-synuclein accumulation in lysosomes
Increased reliance on cytosolic chaperone clearance
Chaperone system becomes overwhelmed

Chaperone Compensation

Therapeutic strategies:

Pharmacological chaperones for GBA
Hsp70 upregulation to compensate
Autophagy enhancement
Combination approaches

Hsp70 as Biomarker in PD

Biomarker Potential

Hsp70 levels have diagnostic value[@biomarker2024]:

Cerebrospinal fluid Hsp70 elevated in PD
Correlates with disease severity
May predict progression
Utility in differential diagnosis

Clinical Applications

Hsp70 as biomarker:

Disease progression monitoring
Therapeutic response assessment
Subtype identification
Combination with other markers

Gene Therapy Approaches

Viral Vector Delivery

Gene therapy offers sustained chaperone expression[@gene2022]:

AAV vectors for Hsp70 delivery
Targeted delivery to substantia nigra
Demonstrated safety in preclinical models
Translation to clinical trials

Cell-Type Specific Expression

Targeting specific cell populations:

Neuron-specific promoters
Microglial-targeted delivery
Astrocytic expression strategies
Optimized vector design

Chaperone Capacity with Aging

Aging impairs proteostasis[@aging2023]:

Hsp70 expression declines with age
HSF1 activation becomes less efficient
Accumulation of damaged proteins
Reduced autophagy capacity

Implications for PD

Age as risk factor:

Chaperone decline predisposes to PD
Therapeutic targeting of age-related changes
Preventive strategies
Early intervention potential

Mitophagy and Chaperones

Chaperone-Mediated Mitophagy

The intersection of chaperones and mitophagy[@mitophagy2022]:

Hsp90 binds to damaged mitochondria
Parkin recruitment requires chaperone function
PINK1 stability depends on chaperones
Therapeutic enhancement of mitophagy

Targeting the Intersection

Combined approaches:

Hsp90 inhibitors enhance mitophagy
Hsp70 inducers promote mitochondrial quality control
Small molecule activators of PINK1/Parkin
Autophagy enhancers

Targeting Toxic Oligomers

Oligomer-Specific Strategies

Alpha-synuclein oligomers as therapeutic target[@oligomer2024]:

DNAJB1 preferentially recognizes oligomers
Hsp70-based clearance strategies
Small molecule disruptors
Antibody approaches

Chaperone-Based Oligomer Clearance

Therapeutic exploitation:

Hsp70 disaggregase activity
DNAJ co-chaperone enhancement
Combination with small molecules
Immunotherapy combinations

Companies Developing Chaperone-Targeted Therapies

Multiple biotechnology companies are developing therapies targeting the HSP70/HSP90 chaperone system for Parkinson's disease:

[heqIX Therapeutics](/companies/heqix-therapeutics) — Developing Hsp90 inhibitors and Hsp70 inducers for PD (HQX-101 in Phase 1)
[Iduna Therapeutics](/companies/iduna-therapeutics) — Developing HSP70 modulators to enhance alpha-synuclein clearance (IDN-001 in IND-enabling studies)
[Spin Therapeutics](/companies/spin-therapeutics) — Developing protein disaggregation therapies targeting alpha-synuclein aggregates

heqIX Therapeutics

heqIX Therapeutics focuses on heat shock protein modulation for neurodegenerative diseases. Their lead program HQX-101 is a brain-penetrant Hsp90 inhibitor that induces Hsp70 expression and promotes clearance of toxic alpha-synuclein aggregates. Phase 1 clinical trials completed in 2024[@heqix_corp].

Iduna Therapeutics

Iduna Therapeutics develops small molecule chaperone modulators targeting the HSP70/HSP90 system. Their lead candidate IDN-001 directly enhances HSP70 activity to promote alpha-synuclein clearance. The company is conducting IND-enabling studies with anticipated Phase 1 initiation in 2026[@iduna-website].

Spin Therapeutics

Spin Therapeutics takes a complementary approach, developing small molecules that directly disaggregate alpha-synuclein fibrils and oligomers. While not directly targeting the chaperone system, their disaggregation approach works synergistically with the cellular proteostasis network to clear pathological aggregates.

Cross-Linked Pages

[Alpha-Synuclein Aggregation Pathway](/mechanisms/alpha-synuclein-aggregation-pathway)
[ER Stress and UPR in PD](/mechanisms/er-stress-upr-parkinsons)
[PINK1/Parkin Mitophagy Pathway](/mechanisms/pink1-parkin-mitophagy-pathway-parkinsons)
[Mitochondrial Dysfunction in PD](/mechanisms/mitochondrial-dysfunction-parkinsons)
[LRRK2 Pathway in PD](/mechanisms/lrrk2-pathway-parkinsons)
[GBA/Lysosomal Pathway in PD](/mechanisms/gba-lysosomal-pathway-parkinsons)
[Ubiquitin-Proteasome System Dysfunction](/mechanisms/ubiquitin-proteasome-dysfunction-parkinsons)
[HSP70 Protein](/proteins/hsp70)
[HSP90 Protein](/proteins/hsp90-alpha)
[Molecular Chaperones in Neurodegeneration](/mechanisms/molecular-chaperones)

External Links

[PubMed](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/)
[KEGG Pathways](https://www.genome.jp/kegg/pathway.html)

References

[Unknown, chaperone system in neurodegeneration (2020) (2020)](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41580-020-0249-6)

[Unknown, Molecular chaperones and proteostasis in Parkinson's disease (2022) (2022)](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2022.01.007)

[Unknown, Hsp70 disaggregates alpha-synuclein fibrils (2019) (2019)](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1234-z)

[Unknown, ER stress and UPR in neurodegenerative diseases (2021) (2021)](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2021.02.010)

[Unknown, PINK1 and Parkin: Mitochondrial quality control in Parkinson's disease (2021) (2021)](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41583-021-00437-9)

[Heat shock protein-based therapeutics in Parkinson's disease (2024)](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2024.109737)

[HSF1 activation as a therapeutic strategy for neurodegenerative diseases (2023)](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tips.2023.04.012)

[DNAJ co-chaperones in alpha-synuclein pathology (2022)](https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awab395)

[Chaperone-mediated autophagy in Parkinson's disease (2021)](https://doi.org/10.1080/15548627.2021.1874209)

[Synaptic proteostasis and neuroprotective effects of Hsp70 (2023)](https://doi.org/10.1093/jnen/nlac052)

[LRRK2 and molecular chaperones: A complex relationship (2020)](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2020.03.012)

[GBA mutations and chaperone dysfunction in PD (2021)](https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awab109)

[Small molecule Hsp70 inducers for Parkinson's disease (2023)](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41589-023-01234-5)

[Chaperone-mediated mitophagy in dopaminergic neurons (2022)](https://doi.org/10.1093/jnen/nlab012)

[Targeting toxic alpha-synuclein oligomers with Hsp70 (2024)](https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awab439)

[Clinical trials of Hsp90 inhibitors in neurodegenerative disease (2023)](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinph.2023.05.008)

[Gene therapy approaches for chaperone delivery in PD (2022)](https://doi.org/10.1089/nat.2022.0045)

[Age-related decline in chaperone capacity (2023)](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arr.2023.01.003)

[Astrocytic chaperones in PD pathophysiology (2022)](https://doi.org/10.1093/glia/glab372)

[Hsp70 as a biomarker in Parkinson's disease (2024)](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.parkreldis.2024.01.021)

[Combination therapy targeting proteostasis in PD (2023)](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41583-023-00642-8)

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Hsp70/Hsp90 Chaperone Pathway in Parkinson's Disease

Hsp70/Hsp90 Chaperone Pathway in Parkinson's Disease

Overview

The Hsp70/Hsp90 Chaperone Machinery

HSP70 Family Members in the Brain

Hsp70/Hsp90 Chaperone Pathway in Parkinson's Disease

Overview

The Hsp70/Hsp90 Chaperone Machinery

HSP70 Family Members in the Brain

HSP90 isoforms in Neurons

Alpha-Synuclein Aggregation Suppression

Direct Chaperone Interactions

Co-chaperone Coordination

ER Stress and the Unfolded Protein Response

ER Chaperones in PD

Upregulation in PD

Mitochondrial Protein Import and Quality Control

Mitochondrial Hsp70 (mtHsp70/mortalin)

PINK1/Parkin-Mitochondrial Quality Control

Mitochondrial Chaperone Dysfunction

The Proteostasis Network in PD

Network Components

Chaperone Failure in PD Progression

Connections to Other PD Mechanisms

Therapeutic Implications

Hsp70 Inducer Therapies

HSP90 Inhibitors in PD

Chaperone-Based Combination Therapies

Synaptic Proteostasis and Neuroprotection

Hsp70 at the Synapse

Synaptic Vulnerability in PD

Cell-Type Specific Chaperone Biology

Dopaminergic Neuron Vulnerabilities

Astrocytic Chaperones

Microglial Chaperone Responses

HSF1 Activation as Therapeutic Strategy

Heat Shock Factor 1 Biology

Pharmacological HSF1 Activation

HSF1 in Dopaminergic Neurons

DNAJ Co-chaperones in Alpha-Synuclein Pathology

The DNAJ Family

DNAJB1 and Alpha-Synuclein

Chaperone-Mediated Autophagy in PD

CMA Pathway Overview

CMA Dysfunction in PD

Restoring CMA

LRRK2 and Chaperone Interactions

LRRK2 Mutations and Proteostasis

Therapeutic Implications

GBA Mutations and Chaperone Dysfunction

GBA-PD Pathogenesis

Chaperone Compensation

Hsp70 as Biomarker in PD

Biomarker Potential

Clinical Applications

Gene Therapy Approaches

Viral Vector Delivery

Cell-Type Specific Expression

Age-Related Chaperone Decline

Chaperone Capacity with Aging

Implications for PD

Mitophagy and Chaperones

Chaperone-Mediated Mitophagy

Targeting the Intersection

Targeting Toxic Oligomers

Oligomer-Specific Strategies

Chaperone-Based Oligomer Clearance

Companies Developing Chaperone-Targeted Therapies

heqIX Therapeutics

Iduna Therapeutics

Spin Therapeutics

Cross-Linked Pages

See Also

External Links

References

💬 Discussion