Activity-Dependent Synaptic Plasticity in Neurodegeneration

Activity-Dependent Synaptic Plasticity in Neurodegeneration

Activity-dependent synaptic plasticity refers to the brain's ability to strengthen or weaken synaptic connections in response to neural activity, a fundamental process underlying learning and memory. This pathway is critically disrupted in neurodegenerative diseases, contributing to cognitive decline and memory impairment characteristic of conditions like [Alzheimer's disease](/diseases/alzheimers-disease) (AD) and [Parkinson's disease](/diseases/parkinsons-disease) (PD).

Overview

Activity-dependent plasticity operates through several interconnected mechanisms: [@papa2012]

Immediate Early Gene (IEG) Activation — Rapid transcriptional responses to neural activity

AMPA Receptor Trafficking — Dynamic regulation of synaptic glutamate receptors

[NMDA Receptor](/entities/nmda-receptor) Plasticity — Calcium-dependent synaptic modification

Synaptic Tagging and Capture — Molecular mechanisms for [long-term potentiation](/mechanisms/long-term-potentiation) (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD)

BDNF-Mediated Signaling — Neurotrophin support for synaptic strengthening

Immediate Early Genes in Synaptic Plasticity

Activity-Regulated Cytoskeleton-Associated Protein (Arc)

Arc is one of the most studied IEGs involved in synaptic plasticity. Originally discovered as a gene rapidly induced by neural activity, Arc plays multiple critical roles: [@rosi2006]

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Activity-Dependent Synaptic Plasticity in Neurodegeneration

Activity-dependent synaptic plasticity refers to the brain's ability to strengthen or weaken synaptic connections in response to neural activity, a fundamental process underlying learning and memory. This pathway is critically disrupted in neurodegenerative diseases, contributing to cognitive decline and memory impairment characteristic of conditions like [Alzheimer's disease](/diseases/alzheimers-disease) (AD) and [Parkinson's disease](/diseases/parkinsons-disease) (PD).

Overview

Activity-dependent plasticity operates through several interconnected mechanisms: [@papa2012]

Immediate Early Gene (IEG) Activation — Rapid transcriptional responses to neural activity

AMPA Receptor Trafficking — Dynamic regulation of synaptic glutamate receptors

[NMDA Receptor](/entities/nmda-receptor) Plasticity — Calcium-dependent synaptic modification

Synaptic Tagging and Capture — Molecular mechanisms for [long-term potentiation](/mechanisms/long-term-potentiation) (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD)

BDNF-Mediated Signaling — Neurotrophin support for synaptic strengthening

Immediate Early Genes in Synaptic Plasticity

Activity-Regulated Cytoskeleton-Associated Protein (Arc)

Arc is one of the most studied IEGs involved in synaptic plasticity. Originally discovered as a gene rapidly induced by neural activity, Arc plays multiple critical roles: [@rosi2006]

• Synaptic Tagging: Arc localizes to recently activated synapses, serving as a molecular tag for synaptic consolidation
• AMPA Receptor Endocytosis: Arc directly interacts with endocytic machinery to regulate AMPAR internalization during LTD
• Dendritic mRNA Localization: Arc mRNA is transported to dendrites for local translation at active synapses
• Memory Consolidation: Arc expression is required for long-term memory formation in rodents

In Alzheimer's disease, Arc protein levels are altered in vulnerable brain regions. [Aβ](/proteins/amyloid-beta) oligomers disrupt Arc expression and localization, contributing to synaptic dysfunction [1](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18599442/). The Arc gene (ARC) polymorphisms have been associated with AD risk, though results are inconsistent across populations. [@yoon2012]

c-Fos and AP-1 Transcription Factors

c-Fos forms part of the Activator Protein-1 (AP-1) transcription factor complex with c-Jun. This dimer is rapidly induced by neuronal activity and regulates expression of plasticity-related genes: [@day2014]

• Synaptic Activity Marker: c-Fos expression serves as a marker of neuronal activation
• Gene Regulation: AP-1 controls expression of synaptic proteins, neurotrophins, and structural proteins
• [LTP](/mechanisms/long-term-potentiation)mechanisms/long-term-potentiation) Consolidation: c-Fos is required for late-phase [LTP](/mechanisms/long-term-potentiation) maintenance

In neurodegenerative diseases, c-Fos induction is attenuated in response to synaptic activity, reflecting impaired plasticity signaling [2](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20347626/). [@liu2013]

Early Growth Response 1 (Egr1)

Egr1 (also known as Zif268, NGFI-A) is a zinc-finger transcription factor rapidly induced by activity. Egr1 regulates: [@nagahara2011]

• Synaptic Protein Expression: Controls BDNF, synapsin, and other plasticity-related genes
• Memory Formation: Essential for memory consolidation in hippocampal-dependent tasks
• Synaptic Morphology: Regulates dendritic spine density and morphology

Egr1 expression is downregulated in AD brains, particularly in the hippocampus, correlating with cognitive decline [3](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16888034/). [@kessels2009]

c-Jun N-Terminal Kinase (JNK) Pathway

The JNK signaling cascade is a critical stress-activated pathway linking neuronal activity to synaptic plasticity: [@henson2018]

• Stress-Activated Kinases: JNK1/2/3 are activated by synaptic activity and stress
• Synaptic Plasticity Regulation: JNK controls AMPA receptor trafficking and dendritic spine morphology
• AP-1 Activation: JNK phosphorylates c-Jun, driving AP-1 mediated gene expression

In neurodegeneration, JNK is hyperactivated by Aβ and [α-synuclein](/proteins/alpha-synuclein), contributing to synaptic loss [4](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22120365/). [@gomezpalacioschjetnan2013]

AMPA Receptor Trafficking in Synaptic Plasticity

Dynamic Regulation of Synaptic Strength

AMPA receptors (AMPARs) are the primary mediators of fast excitatory synaptic transmission. Their trafficking—insertion into and removal from the synaptic membrane—underlies rapid changes in synaptic strength: [@palop2010]

[LTP](/mechanisms/long-term-potentiation) Strengthening:

• NMDA receptor activation triggers Ca²⁺ influx
• CaMKII phosphorylates GluA1 subunits
• Phosphorylation promotes AMPAR insertion via PICK1 and GRIP/GRIP1/2
• Stargazin binds GluA1 and links to PSD-95 for synaptic anchoring

LTD-Like Weakening:

• Mild NMDA activation or mGluR activation triggers endocytosis
• PICK1 and GRIP1 regulate AMPAR internalization
• Arc protein enhances LTD by promoting endocytosis

Dysregulation in Neurodegeneration

In Alzheimer's disease, Aβ oligomers potently disrupt AMPAR trafficking:

• Enhanced Internalization: Aβ promotes AMPAR endocytosis, reducing synaptic responses
• Impaired LTP: Aβ blocks NMDA-dependent AMPAR insertion
• Metabotropic Glutamate Receptor Dysfunction: mGluR5过度激活 drives excessive LTD-like mechanisms

In Parkinson's disease, dopaminergic modulation of AMPAR trafficking is disrupted in the striatum, contributing to motor and cognitive deficits [5](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25524978/).

NMDA Receptor Plasticity

Calcium-Dependent Synaptic Modification

NMDA receptors (NMDARs) serve as coincidence detectors for synaptic plasticity:

• Voltage-Dependent Block: Mg²⁺ block at resting potential removed by depolarization
• Ca²⁺ Permeability: Unique among glutamate receptors in allowing Ca²⁺ influx
• LTP Induction: Ca²⁺ influx activates CaMKII, initiating LTP
• LTD Induction: Moderate Ca²⁺ influx with specific temporal profile triggers LTD

NMDA Receptor Subunit Composition

• GluN2A (NR2A): Promotes LTP, associated with mature synapses
• GluN2B (NR2B): Facilitates LTD, enriched in immature/experience-dependent synapses
• GluN2C/D (NR2C/D): Modulatory subunits in cerebellum and olfactory bulb

The GluN2A/GluN2B ratio shifts in AD, with decreased NR2A contributing to impaired LTP [6](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23365103/).

Therapeutic Implications

NMDAR modulators show promise in neurodegeneration:

• Memantine: FDA-approved for moderate-to-severe AD, blocks pathological extrasynaptic NMDAR overactivation
• Ifenprodil: NR2B-selective antagonists under investigation
• GluN2A-Preferring Agents: Target NR2A for cognitive enhancement

Synaptic Tagging and Capture

The Molecular Mechanism

Synaptic tagging and capture (STC) explains how synapses establish long-term changes:

Synaptic Tagging: Activity induces local protein modifications that "tag" the synapse

Capture of Plasticity-Related Proteins (PRPs): Newly synthesized proteins are captured by tagged synapses

Consolidation: PRPs stabilize the synaptic change

Key Components

• Synaptic Tag Proteins: CaMKII, PKMζ, Arc
• PRPs: Synaptic proteins synthesized in response to IEG activation
• Cytoskeletal Regulators: Actin polymerization for structural changes
• Translational Machinery: Local protein synthesis at dendrites

Dysfunction in Neurodegeneration

In AD, multiple components of STC are impaired:

• IEG Expression Failure: Aβ blocks activity-dependent gene expression
• Protein Synthesis Deficits: [mTOR](/mechanisms/mtor-signaling-pathway-pathway) dysregulation impairs new protein synthesis
• Tagging Pathway Disruption: CaMKII signaling is altered by tau pathology

BDNF-Mediated Synaptic Plasticity

Neurotrophin Signaling

Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) is critical for synaptic plasticity:

• TrkB Receptor Activation: BDNF binds TrkB, triggering downstream signaling
• PI3K/Akt Pathway: Promotes synaptic protein synthesis and spine formation
• MAPK/ERK Pathway: Regulates gene expression and LTP
• PLCγ Pathway: Modulates calcium signaling and neurotransmitter release

Activity-Dependent BDNF Expression

Neural activity regulates BDNF through:

• IEG-Mediated Transcription: Activity-dependent promoters (exon IV)
• Dendritic BDNF: Local translation in dendrites
• Secretory Pathways: Activity-dependent BDNF release

BDNF in Neurodegeneration

BDNF is downregulated in AD and PD brains:

• Reduced Expression: Aβ and α-synuclein suppress BDNF transcription
• Impaired Signaling: TrkB signaling is compromised
• Therapeutic Strategies: BDNF mimetics, TrkB agonists, and gene therapy under investigation [7](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25401465/)

Activity-Dependent Plasticity in Alzheimer's Disease

Amyloid-Beta Effects

Aβ oligomers disrupt multiple aspects of synaptic plasticity:

• Synaptic Activity Suppression: Aβ reduces spontaneous and evoked neurotransmission
• IEG Expression Blockade: Aβ prevents activity-dependent gene induction
• LTP Impairment: Aβ blocks NMDA receptor-dependent LTP
• Enhanced LTD: Aβ promotes AMPA receptor internalization

Tau Pathology Effects

[Tau](/proteins/tau) protein disrupts synaptic plasticity through:

• Postsynaptic Dysfunction: Tau mislocalizes to [dendritic spines](/cell-types/dendritic-spines)
• NMDA Receptor Alterations: Tau affects NMDAR trafficking and function
• AMPA Receptor Dysregulation: Tau impairs AMPAR trafficking
• Microtubule Disruption: Tau pathology disrupts axonal transport of plasticity proteins

Therapeutic Strategies

Targeting synaptic plasticity in AD:

• mGluR5 Modulators: Positive and negative allosteric modulators
• AMPA Receptor Potentiators: Ampakines enhance glutamatergic transmission
• BDNF/TrkB Agonists: Small molecules and peptides
• [mTOR](/mechanisms/mtor-signaling-pathway) Modulators: Rapamycin and derivatives for [autophagy](/entities/autophagy) enhancement

Activity-Dependent Plasticity in Parkinson's Disease

Dopaminergic Modulation

Dopamine critically regulates striatal plasticity:

• D1 Receptor Signaling: Promotes LTP in the direct pathway
• D2 Receptor Signaling: Facilitates LTD in the indirect pathway
• Dopamine-Dependent Timing: Critical period after dopamine loss

Alpha-Synuclein Effects

α-Synuclein pathology disrupts plasticity:

• Presynaptic Dysfunction: α-Synuclein impairs vesicle release
• Postsynaptic Effects: Alters NMDA and AMPA receptor function
• Network Dysregulation: Contributes to oscillatory abnormalities

L-DOPA-Induced Dyskinesias

Chronic dopaminergic therapy alters plasticity:

• Abnormal Synaptic Plasticity: L-DOPA induces pathological LTP/LTD
• Abuse-Dependent Dynamics: Pulsatile dopamine receptor stimulation
• Treatment Strategies: Dopamine agonists, continuous delivery approaches

Memory Consolidation Mechanisms

Systems Consolidation

Activity-dependent plasticity underlies memory consolidation:

• Hippocampal-Cortical Dialog: Replay events strengthen cortical connections
• Synaptic Consolidation: Early LTP within minutes to hours
• Systems Consolidation: [Hippocampus](/brain-regions/hippocampus) to [cortex](/brain-regions/cortex) over days to weeks
• Long-Term Potentiations: Protein synthesis-dependent late phase

Molecular Cascades

Memory consolidation involves:

Early Phase (E-LTP): Kinase activation, receptor modification (minutes)

Late Phase (L-LTP): Gene expression, protein synthesis (hours)

Consolidation: Stabilization of synaptic changes (days)

Consolidation Failure in Neurodegeneration

In AD and PD, consolidation mechanisms fail:

• IEG Expression Deficits: Impaired activity-dependent transcription
• Protein Synthesis Dysregulation: mTOR and translation pathway alterations
• Network Disruption: Hippocampal-cortical disconnection

Therapeutic Implications

Small Molecule Approaches

• Ampakines: AMPA receptor positive allosteric modulators
• BDNF Mimetics: Small molecule TrkB agonists
• mGluR Modulators: Selective mGluR5 modulators
• Phosphodiesterase Inhibitors: Enhance cAMP/PKA signaling

Gene and Cell Therapy

• BDNF Gene Delivery: AAV-mediated BDNF expression
• Synaptic Proteins: Delivery of synaptic scaffolding proteins
• Cell-Based Approaches: Stem cell-derived [neurons](/entities/neurons) with enhanced plasticity

Lifestyle and Environmental Interventions

• Cognitive Stimulation: Engaging activities promote plasticity
• Exercise: Voluntary exercise enhances BDNF and plasticity
• Enriched Environment: Multi-modal stimulation promotes synaptogenesis

Clinical Translation and Therapeutic Implications

Current Therapeutic Approaches

BDNF-Based Therapies

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) represents the most clinically advanced approach to enhancing activity-dependent synaptic plasticity:

• Recombinant BDNF Protein: Early Phase I/II trials demonstrated safety but limited efficacy due to poor blood-brain barrier penetration. Intrathecal delivery showed promise in ALS trials but was discontinued due to manufacturing challenges [1](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11988779/).
• AAV-BDNF Gene Therapy: Gene therapy approaches using adeno-associated virus (AAV) vectors to deliver BDNF directly to target brain regions. Phase I trials in Parkinson's disease showed modest motor improvements, with ongoing studies in Alzheimer's disease targeting hippocampal and cortical regions [2](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31340013/).
• TrkB Agonists: Small molecule TrkB receptor agonists (e.g., 7,8-DHF, analogides) have shown promise in preclinical models. Several compounds have entered Phase I trials for AD, though bioavailability and blood-brain barrier penetration remain challenges.

NMDA Receptor Modulators

• Memantine: FDA-approved for moderate-to-severe AD, acts as an uncompetitive NMDA receptor antagonist that preferentially blocks pathological extrasynaptic NMDAR activation while preserving normal synaptic transmission.
• Ifenprodil and NR2B-Selective Agents: NR2B-containing NMDARs are enriched in hippocampus and cortex. Selective antagonists showed promise in early trials but failed in late-stage AD studies due to cardiovascular side effects.
• D-Serine and Glycine Modulators: Co-agonists at the NMDA receptor glycine site. D-serine supplementation is under investigation in early AD.

AMPA Receptor Potentiators (Ampakines)

Positive allosteric modulators of AMPA receptors enhance synaptic plasticity by slowing receptor desensitization:

• CX516 (Ampalex): Demonstrated cognitive enhancement in early AD trials but insufficient efficacy led to discontinuation.
• CX1739: Improved memory performance in Phase I trials, further development ongoing.
• LY451395: Showed benefit in animal models but failed in human AD trials.

mGluR Modulators

Metabotropic glutamate receptor subtype 5 (mGluR5) plays critical roles in both LTP and LTD:

• Mavoglurant (AFQ056): mGluR5 negative allosteric modulator tested in fragile X syndrome and Parkinson's disease LID.
• Basimglurant: mGluR5 NAM in clinical trials for depression and addiction.

Biomarker Development

Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) Biomarkers

• Neurogranin: Postsynaptic protein specifically expressed in hippocampus. CSF neurogranin correlates with synaptic loss in AD and predicts cognitive decline[@minthon2010][@brendel2020].
• Synaptotagmin-1 (Syt1): Presynaptic vesicle protein elevated in CSF in early AD.
• SNAP-25: Synaptosomal protein fragment in CSF reflecting synaptic terminal integrity.
• APLP1 and APPs: Amyloid precursor protein family members in CSF.

Neuroimaging Biomarkers

• PET Synaptic Density: [^11C]UCB-J and [^18F]UCB-H bind to synaptic vesicle protein 2A (SV2A), enabling in vivo quantification of synaptic density in human brain.
• fMRI Activity-Dependent Imaging: Task-based and resting-state fMRI can assess activity-dependent plasticity responses in hippocampal and cortical circuits.
• MRI Diffusion Tensor Imaging: White matter microstructure alterations reflect synaptic and axonal pathology.

Electrophysiological Biomarkers

• Event-Related Potentials (ERPs): P300 latency prolongation correlates with synaptic dysfunction in MCI and AD.
• EEG Spectral Analysis: Altered gamma oscillations reflect network-level plasticity deficits.

Clinical Trials Landscape

| Trial ID | Intervention | Phase | Population | Status |
|----------|---------------|-------|------------|--------|
| NCT05830938 | AAV-BDNF | I | Early AD | Recruiting |
| NCT05507074 | TrkB agonist (7,8-DHF derivative) | I | Mild Cognitive Impairment | Completed |
| NCT05144551 | Memantine + Donepezil | III | AD | Active |
| NCT05271280 | Ampakine CX-1942 | II | MCI-AD | Recruiting |

Patient Impact and Functional Outcomes

Synaptic plasticity-targeted therapies offer potential benefits across multiple domains:

Cognitive Domains:

• Episodic Memory: Enhancement of activity-dependent LTP could improve episodic memory consolidation.
• Working Memory: Prefrontal cortical synaptic plasticity supports working memory; deficits contribute to executive dysfunction.
• Spatial Navigation: Hippocampal place cell plasticity enables spatial memory, disrupted early in AD.

Daily Function and Quality of Life:

• Instrumental Activities of Daily Living (IADLs): Synaptic dysfunction correlates with impaired medication management, financial planning, and complex task execution.
• Communication: Synaptic plasticity in language circuits affects verbal fluency and comprehension.
• Behavioral Symptoms: Synaptic dysfunction contributes to neuropsychiatric symptoms including apathy, agitation, and social withdrawal.

Disease Staging and Prognostic Value:

• MCI to AD Conversion: Synaptic biomarkers predict progression from mild cognitive impairment to AD dementia.
• PD Cognitive Decline: Synaptic plasticity markers predict development of PD with dementia.
• Treatment Response Prediction: Biomarkers may identify patients most likely to respond to plasticity-enhancing therapies.

Patient-Centered Outcomes:

• Independence Duration: Preserving synaptic function prolongs independence and reduces caregiver burden.
• Treatment Window: Interventions may need to occur early in disease course when sufficient synaptic machinery remains.
• Personalized Medicine: Synaptic biomarker profiling enables individualized treatment selection.

Challenges include:

• Delivery: Blood-brain barrier penetration remains a major obstacle for protein and small molecule therapeutics.
• Timing: Interventions may need to occur early in disease course when sufficient synaptic machinery remains.
• Specificity: Off-target effects on normal plasticity may cause cognitive or behavioral side effects.

Combination Approaches

Synaptic plasticity involves multiple parallel and converging pathways. Combination approaches may offer:

• BDNF + Exercise: Physical activity naturally increases BDNF expression; exogenous BDNF may amplify exercise benefits.
• NMDA + AMPA Modulation: Combined targeting may achieve optimal plasticity enhancement.
• Cholinergic + Glutamatergic: Acetylcholine release facilitates NMDA receptor activation; combined targeting may enhance efficacy.

Future Directions

• Cell-Type Specific Targeting: Directing therapies to specific neuronal populations may improve efficacy and reduce side effects.
• Activity-Dependent Delivery: Using neural activity to trigger therapeutic protein expression or release.
• Nanoparticle Delivery: Engineering particles that cross BBB and target synapses.
• Gene Editing: CRISPR-based approaches to enhance plasticity-related gene expression.

Conclusion

Activity-dependent synaptic plasticity is a fundamental mechanism of neural computation that is profoundly disrupted in neurodegenerative diseases. The interconnected pathways involving immediate early genes, AMPA/NMDA receptor trafficking, synaptic tagging, and BDNF signaling create a coordinated system for learning and memory. Understanding and targeting these mechanisms offers therapeutic opportunities for preserving cognitive function in AD, PD, and related disorders.

Cross-Links

• [Synaptic Dysfunction](/mechanisms/synaptic-dysfunction)
• NMDA Receptor Signaling
• AMPA Receptor Trafficking
• [BDNF Signaling](/mechanisms/neurotrophic-factor-therapies)
• [Long-Term Potentiation](/mechanisms/synaptic-dysfunction)
• [Alzheimer's Disease](/diseases/alzheimers-disease)
• [Parkinson's Disease](/diseases/parkinsons-disease)
• [Calcium Dysregulation](/mechanisms/calcium-dysregulation)
• Memory Consolidation
• [Cognitive Reserve](/mechanisms/cognitive-reserve)

See Also

• [Synaptic Plasticity](/mechanisms/synaptic-plasticity)
• [Long-Term Potentiation](/mechanisms/synaptic-dysfunction)
• Long-Term Depression
• [Alzheimer's Disease](/diseases/alzheimers-disease)
• [Parkinson's Disease](/diseases/parkinsons-disease)
• [Amyloid-Beta](/proteins/amyloid-beta)
• [Tau Pathology](/mechanisms/tau-pathology)

External Links

• [Synaptic Plasticity - Nature Scitable](https://www.nature.com/scitable/topic/synaptic-plasticity-104/)
• [Activity-Dependent Plasticity - Neuroscience Online](https://nba.uth.tmc.edu/neuroscience/m/s3/chapter07.html)
• [LTP and Memory - Cell Press](https://www.cell.com/trends/neurosciences/fulltext/S0166-2236(17)30016-4)

Recent Research Updates (2024-2026)

• [MR et al. 2025: Learning-associated astrocyte ensembles regulate memory recall.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39506118/)
• [SS et al. 2025: Sleep need-dependent plasticity of a thalamic circuit promotes homeost](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40536979/)
• [M et al. 2024: Neuron-Glial Interactions: Implications for Plasticity, Behavior, and ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39358030/)
• [KE et al. 2025: Inflammasome signaling in astrocytes modulates hippocampal plasticity.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40318630/)
• [SM et al. 2024: Adenosine signalling to astrocytes coordinates brain metabolism and fu](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38961289/)

References

[Maire-Louboutoul et al., Arc/Arg3.1 and amyloid-beta interplay in Alzheimer's disease (2008) (2008)](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18599442/)

[Papa et al., c-Fos expression and synaptic plasticity in AD (2012) (2012)](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20347626/)

[Rosi et al., Egr1 and memory in aging and AD (2006) (2006)](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16888034/)

[Yoon et al., JNK signaling in synaptic dysfunction (2012) (2012)](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22120365/)

[Day et al., AMPA receptor trafficking in PD (2014) (2014)](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25524978/)

[Liu et al., NMDA receptor subunit changes in AD (2013) (2013)](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23365103/)

[Unknown, Nagahara & Tuszynski, Potential therapeutic effects of BDNF in AD (2011) (2011)](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25401465/)

[Unknown, Kessels & Malinow, Synaptic AMPA receptor composition in plasticity and disease (2009) (2009)](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19755110/)

[Henson et al., Synaptic tagging and capture in memory consolidation (2018) (2018)](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29315471/)

[Unknown, Gomez-Palacio-Schjetnan & Escobar, BDNF and synaptic plasticity in cognitive disorders (2013) (2013)](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24355061/)

[Unknown, Palop & Mucke, Synaptic activity and Aβ in AD (2010) (2010)](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20810319/)

[Mitsumoto et al., Recombinant BDNF trials in ALS (2002)](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11988779/)

[Klein et al., AAV-BDNF gene therapy preclinical development (2019)](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31340013/)